Complications associated with total hip arthroplasty in four large nondomestic felids.

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 9-year-old 37-kg sexually intact male snow leopard (Panthera uncia) with no history of lameness but radiographic evidence of right femoral subluxation and flattening of both femoral heads, 2 juvenile (< 1 year old) 25-kg sexually intact male cheetahs (Acinoynx jubatus) with unilateral hind limb lameness resulting from trauma, and an 11-year-old 110-kg sexually intact female Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) with a 2-year history of left hip joint osteoarthritis were examined. CLINICAL FINDINGS: No clinically relevant clinical findings other than hip joint problems were identified. All 4 felids underwent staged bilateral (snow leopard) or unilateral (cheetahs and tiger [Panthera tigris]) total hip arthroplasty (THA). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: In the snow leopard, both femoral THA components were found to be luxated 1 year after surgery. Treatment consisted of autogenous corticocancellous rib graft augmentation of the dorsal acetabular rims and synthetic suture capsulorrhaphies. The snow leopard lived for an additional 4 years with no additional THA-related complications. In the other 3 animals, catastrophic complications (luxation in the cheetahs and femoral fracture in the tiger) occurred shortly after THA. The THA implants were removed, and excision arthroplasty was performed. Long-term outcomes were good in all 3. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings underscore the challenges associated with THA in large nondomestic felids. Given the high risk for early catastrophic failure as a result of luxation or fracture, plans must be made and resources must be available in case revision surgery or implant removal with excision arthroplasty becomes necessary.

Retinal cone photoreceptor distribution in the American black bear (Ursus americanus).

The distribution of cone photoreceptor subtypes (important for color vision and vision quality) varies widely in different carnivore species, but there have been limited studies on bear (ursid) cone distribution. A previous behavioral study suggests that American black bears (Ursus americanus) are dichromatic, indicating that they possess two cone subtypes, although the retinal distribution of cones is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the subtype and topography of cones in American black bear retinas to further predict the nature of their color vision and image resolution. We studied 10 eyes from seven individual legally hunted black bears in northeastern North Carolina. Cryosections and retinal wholemounts were labeled using antibodies targeting two cone opsin subtypes: long/medium (L/M) wavelength sensitive and short (S) wavelength sensitive. Cones in fluorescent microscopy images were counted and density maps were created for retinal wholemounts. The black bear retina contains both cone subtypes and L/M cones outnumber S cones by at least 3:1, a finding confirmed in retinal frozen sections. There are higher concentrations of S cones present than typically seen in other carnivores with some evidence for co-expression of L/M and S cones. A cone-dense area centralis is present dorsotemporal to the optic nerve, similar to other carnivores. These results confirm that American black bears are predicted to have a dichromatic vision with high acuity indicated by the presence of a dorsotemporally located area centralis.

Effect of Multiradiance Low-Level Laser Therapy and Topical Silver Sulfadiazine on Healing Characteristics of Dermal Wounds in Marine Toads (Rhinella marina).

Current recommendations for wound management in amphibians are based primarily on clinical experience and on extrapolation from other taxa, whereas controlled clinical studies are lacking. Low-level laser therapy, also termed photobiomodulation, has gained popularity in veterinary medicine and may represent a valuable adjunct therapy for wound care in amphibians, though dosing and safety evaluations have not been previously reported. Silver sulfadiazine (SSD), a topical antimicrobial, is commonly utilized in amphibian medicine but little is known about its effects on wound healing in this class of animals. This pilot study evaluated the effects of repeated treatments of low-level laser therapy or topical SSD on second-intention healing characteristics of surgically induced full-thickness dermal wounds in 33 adult wild-caught marine toads. Toads were anesthetized, and a 6 mm cutaneous biopsy was performed over the right dorsum. They were then randomly assigned to one of three groups: laser therapy (LT) at 5 Hz (905 nm wavelength on a super pulsed sequence), topical SSD (SD), or control sham treatment (CT). Treatments were administered at 24 hrs after biopsy and then every 72 hrs thereafter, concurrent with a visual assessment of the wound. Toads were euthanized at one of five timepoints (day 4, 7, 13, 19, or 28) to permit scoring of histologic criteria, including lymphocytic inflammation, granulomatous inflammation, heterophilic inflammation, granulation tissue, fibrosis, and reepithelialization. Visual assessments and histologic scoring did not identify a benefit of laser therapy or SSD as compared to controls. Laser therapy and SSD, at the doses and dosing schedule utilized in this pilot study, appear to be safe and well-tolerated treatments in marine toads, but may not be warranted for uncomplicated skin wounds in this species.

The Use of Self-Inflating Hygroscopic Tissue Expanders to Facilitate Osteosarcoma Removal in a Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus).

A 0.34 kg adult female Massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) was presented for evaluation of a subcutaneous mass affecting the ventral scales. The mass was diagnosed as a sarcoma via punch biopsy with no evidence of metastasis on diagnostic imaging. Surgical margins of 1-2 cm were planned to achieve complete excision of the neoplasm. A technique for tissue expansion was employed due to concerns regarding the ability to close the surgical site without excess tension or dehiscence. Two 27 mm diameter × 5 mm hygroscopic self-inflating tissue expanders were placed subcutaneously under the lateral scales adjacent to the mass. Maximum skin expansion occurred over a four-week period, and no direct negative effects were noted. Excision of the primary mass was performed routinely five weeks after implant placement. Primary closure of the defect was achieved with minimal tension by incorporating the expanded skin. While the surgery was successful with no evidence of metastasis, the snake died of sepsis two weeks postoperatively. This is the first report of the use of self-inflating hygroscopic tissue expanders to help close a surgical defect in a reptile.

THE MESOPTERYGIAL VEIN: A RELIABLE VENIPUNCTURE SITE FOR INTRAVASCULAR ACCESS IN BATOIDS.

Intravascular access in batoid species is commonly achieved using the ventral coccygeal or radial wing vessels. However, these approaches can be difficult because of the presence of cartilage, lack of specific landmarks, species variation, and small vessel size in many species. This study used postmortem contrast radiography and gross dissection to develop landmarks for a new, dependable vascular access in three Myliobatiform species commonly maintained in captivity: Atlantic stingray (Hypanus sabinus), cownose ray (Rhinoptera bonasus), and smooth butterfly ray (Gymnura micrura). The mesopterygial vein provides quick vascular access and is suitable for administration of large fluid volumes and intravascular drugs. It is located immediately ventrolateral to the metapterygium cartilage, which sits adjacent to the coelomic cavity and supports the caudal half of the pectoral fin. Using the pectoral girdle and cranial third of the metapterygium cartilage as landmarks, vascular access can be achieved by directing a needle medially at approximately a 30° (adult cownose rays) or 45° angle (Atlantic stingrays, juvenile cownose rays, smooth butterfly rays) toward the metapterygium cartilage. Differences in the degree of needle direction are due to species and age-specific shapes of the metapterygium cartilage. The mesopterygial vein is an alternate site of quick and reliable venous access in batoid species.

2-PHENOXYETHANOL (2-PE) AND TRICAINE METHANESULFONATE (MS-222) IMMERSION ANESTHESIA OF AMERICAN HORSESHOE CRABS (LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS).

Despite extensive literature examining American horseshoe crab physiology, there are comparatively few publications addressing their medical care. Establishing anesthesia protocols for horseshoe crabs is integral to limiting the potential stress and pain associated with invasive procedures and for advancing euthanasia techniques. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of two immersion anesthetics, tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) at 1 g/L (buffered with sodium carbonate) and 2-phenoxyethanol (2-PE) at 2 mL/L, on horseshoe crabs. Twenty horseshoe crabs were assigned to one of two anesthetic treatment groups and individually anesthetized in natural seawater. Water quality, cardiac contractility, and hemolymph gas analytes were measured prior to anesthesia and at 30 min Animals were monitored via heart rate, gilling rate, and sedation score every 5 min until recovered. Transcarapacial ultrasonography was used to obtain heart rate, gilling rate, and percent fractional shortening. Light or surgical anesthesia was produced in 10/10 animals in the 2-PE group and 8/10 animals in the MS-222 group. There was no significant difference in sedation scores, induction time (median 15 min), or recovery time (median 20.5 min). Gilling rate and cardiac contractility decreased during anesthesia, whereas heart rate did not. Hemolymph pH and pO2 were not different among treatment groups or time points. Baseline pCO2 was higher than pCO2 at 30 min for both groups but significantly elevated only in the MS-222 group. This is attributed to increased activity during the handling of awake animals. Invasive blood pressure obtained via cardiac catheterization in two animals was markedly decreased during surgical anesthesia. In conclusion, 2-PE and MS-222 provided effective anesthesia with clinically useful induction and recovery times. 2-PE provided a subjectively more reliable and smoother anesthesia compared to MS-222.

Cystic urolithiasis in captive waxy monkey frogs (Phyllomedusa sauvagii).

The waxy monkey frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii) is an arboreal amphibian native to arid regions of South America, and it has developed behavioral and physiologic adaptations to permit survival in dry environments. These adaptations include a uricotelic nitrogen metabolism and unique cutaneous lipid excretions to prevent evaporative water loss. Uroliths are a rare finding in amphibians. Six adult, presumed wild-caught waxy monkey frogs housed in a museum animal collection were diagnosed with cystic urolithiasis over a 7-yr period, and a single animal was diagnosed with four recurrent cases. Six cases were identified incidentally at routine physical or postmortem examination and four cases were identified during veterinary evaluation for coelomic distension, lethargy, anorexia, and increased soaking behavior. Calculi were surgically removed from three frogs via cystotomy, and a single frog underwent three cystotomies and two cloacotomies for recurrent urolithiasis. Two frogs died within the 24-hr postoperative period. Two representative calculi from a single frog were submitted for component analysis and found to consist of 100% ammonium urate. In the present report, cystic calculi are proposed to be the result of a high-protein diet based on a single invertebrate source, coupled with uricotelism, dehydration, increased cutaneous water loss, body temperature fluctuations facilitating supersaturation of urine, and subsequent accumulation and precipitation of urogenous wastes within the urinary bladder. Surgical cystotomy represents a short-term treatment strategy for this condition. Preventative measures, such as supplying a diversified and balanced diet in addition to environmental manipulation aimed at promoting adequate hydration, are anticipated to be more-rewarding management tools for cystic urolithiasis in the waxy monkey frog.

Collection and characterization of semen from Chilean rose tarantulas (Grammostola rosea).

OBJECTIVE: To establish a nonterminal semen collection method for use in captive Chilean rose tarantulas (Grammostola rosea) and to evaluate tools for investigating morphology and viability of spermatozoa. ANIMALS: 7 mature male Chilean rose tarantulas. PROCEDURES: Each tarantula was anesthetized in a 500-mL induction chamber containing a cotton ball infused with 2 mL of isoflurane. Semen collection was performed by applying direct pressure to the palpal bulbs (sperm storage organs) located on the distal segment of the palpal limbs. Morphology of spermatozoa was examined by light microscopy and transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Propidium iodide and a fluorescent membrane-permeant nucleic acid dye were used to evaluate cell viability. RESULTS: Semen was collected successfully from all 7 tarantulas. Microscopic examination of semen samples revealed coenospermia (spherical capsules [mean ± SD diameter, 10.3 ± 1.6 µm] containing many nonmotile sperm cells [mean number of sperm cells/capsule, 18.5 ± 3.8]). Individual spermatozoa were characterized by a spiral-shaped cell body (mean length, 16.7 ± 1.4 µm; mean anterior diameter, 1.5 ± 0.14 µm). Each spermatozoon had no apparent flagellar structure. The fluorescent stains identified some viable sperm cells in the semen samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The described technique allowed simple and repeatable collection of semen from Chilean rose tarantulas. Semen from this species was characterized by numerous spherical capsules containing many nonmotile spermatozoa in an apparently quiescent state. Fluorescent staining to distinguish live from dead spermatozoa appeared to be a useful tool for semen evaluation in this species.

Efficacy of alfaxalone for intravascular anesthesia and euthanasia in blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus).

The objective of this study was to characterize the behavioral effects and changes in heart rate of four doses of alfaxalone delivered by intravascular injection to blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Thirty (male, n = 27; female, n = 3) blue crabs were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups of alfaxalone: eight animals were assigned to each of the 5-, 10-, and 15-mg/kg treatment groups, and the remaining six animals were assigned to the 100-mg/kg group. Times for anesthetic induction and recovery periods were recorded. Righting reflex, defensive posturing, and heart rate were evaluated before, during, and after the anesthetic trial. Anesthesia was induced in all 14 animals consolidated into the high-dosage group (15 mg/kg [n = 8] and 100 mg/kg [n = 6]), which was significantly greater than 8 of 16 animals in the low-dosage group (5 mg/kg [n = 2] and 10 mg/kg [n = 6]). Median anesthesia induction time for all crabs was 0.4 min, with no significant difference in induction time between groups observed. Median recovery time was 9.4 min (n = 2), 6.1 min (n = 5), 11.3 min (n = 8), and 66.1 min (n = 5) for the 5-, 10-, 15-, and 100-mg/kg groups, respectively. Recovery times were significantly longer for crabs exposed to an induction dose of 100 mg/kg compared with the 10- and 15-mg/kg induction doses. A significant decrease in the median heart rate was observed between the baseline value and that observed at both induction and 5 min postinjection in the 100-mg/kg dose trial. Two mortalities were observed during the anesthesia trials (n = 1, 10 mg/kg; n = 1, 100 mg/kg), both associated with the autotomization of limbs. In summary, the intravascular administration of alfaxalone at 15 mg/kg provided rapid and reliable sedation, whereas alfaxalone administered at 100 mg/kg produced rapid and long lasting anesthesia.

Fundamental studies of the reproductive biology of the endangered persian onager (Equus hemionus onager) result in first wild equid offspring from artificial insemination.

We studied the Persian onager (Equus hemionus onager), an endangered equid subspecies. The objective was to characterize endocrine patterns and ovarian follicular dynamics of females as well as seminal traits and sperm sensitivity to cryopreservation in males as a prerequisite to testing the feasibility of artificial insemination (AI). Urinary progesterone and estrogen metabolite profiles were determined by enzyme immunoassay in 11 females. Serial ultrasonography of ovarian activity was performed for 2 mo in a subset of four females. Females were seasonally polyestrous (June-November). Ovarian morphometry via ultrasonography and urinary progesterone profiles were more reflective of reproductive events than urinary estrogen patterns, and preovulatory follicle size was smaller than reported for other equid species. There was evidence for lactational suppression of estrus for up to 1.5 yr in nursing dams. Electroejaculation allowed recovery of highly motile sperm from 7, anesthetized males on 57% of occasions. Spermatozoa, including motility and acrosomal integrity, were resilient to freeze-thawing. Artificial insemination was successful in 2 of 3 females following detection of a dominant follicle and deslorelin administration, resulting in births of a healthy female and male foal by using fresh/chilled and frozen/thawed sperm, respectively.

Effects of intramuscular meloxicam administration on prostaglandin E2 synthesis in the North American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana).

Meloxicam is a commonly used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in veterinary medicine, but its use in amphibians has not been reported in the literature. NSAIDs are known to act by providing anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions by inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the intramuscular administration of meloxicam would decrease the circulating serum PGE2 levels in the North American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) following tissue trauma induced by a punch biopsy. Eighteen adult North American bullfrogs were randomly assigned to two treatment groups: meloxicam (0.1 mg/kg i.m.) and control (0.9% saline i.m.). Blood was obtained via cardiocentesis immediately prior to administration of the two treatment regimes and serum was frozen. A 4-mm punch biopsy was taken from the right triceps femoris muscle to induce an inflammatory response. Twenty-four hours later, a second blood sample was collected and serum was harvested and frozen. Serum PGE2 concentrations were measured using a commercial PGE2 enzyme assay (EIA) kit. Twenty-four hours following the biopsy, the mean circulating PGE2 levels of animals treated with meloxicam was 57.79 +/- 12.35 pg/ml, which did not differ significantly from animals that were treated with saline (85.63 +/- 17.55 pg/ml, P > or = 0.05). The calculated means of the absolute change between the circulating baseline PGE2 levels and the postinjury circulating PGE2 levels were significantly lower in animals treated with meloxicam (13.11 +/- 17.31 pg/ml) than in control animals treated with saline (46.14 +/- 38.02 pg/ml) (P < or = 0.05). These results suggest that the systemic administration of meloxicam at a dosage of 0.1 mg/kg once daily suppresses circulating serum PGE2 levels postinjury in the North American bullfrog.

Development of methods for the genetic manipulation of Flavobacterium columnare.

BACKGROUND: Flavobacterium columnare is the causative agent of columnaris disease, a disease affecting many freshwater fish species. Methods for the genetic manipulation for some of the species within the Bacteroidetes, including members of the genus Flavobacterium, have been described, but these methods were not adapted to work with F. columnare. RESULTS: As a first step toward developing a robust set of genetic tools for F. columnare, a protocol was developed to introduce the E. coli - Flavobacterium shuttle vector pCP29 into F. columnare strain C#2 by conjugal mating at an efficiency of 1.5 x 10(-3) antibiotic-resistant transconjugants per recipient cell. Eight of eleven F. columnare strains tested were able to receive pCP29 using the protocol. pCP29 contains the cfxA and ermF genes, conferring both cefoxitin and erythromycin resistance to recipient cells. Selection for pCP29 introduction into F. columnare was dependent on cfxA, as ermF was found not to provide strong resistance to erythromycin. This is in contrast to other Flavobacterium species where ermF-based erythromycin resistance is strong. The green fluorescent protein gene (gfp) was introduced into F. columnare strains under the control of two different native Flavobacterium promoters, demonstrating the potential of this reporter system for the study of gene expression. The transposon Tn4351 was successfully introduced into F. columnare, but the method was dependent on selecting for erythromycin resistance. To work, low concentrations of antibiotic (1 microg ml(-1)) were used, and high levels of background growth occurred. These results demonstrate that Tn4351 functions in F. columnare but that it is not an effective mutagenesis tool due to its dependence on erythromycin selection. Attempts to generate mutants via homologous recombination met with limited success, suggesting that RecA dependent homologous recombination is rare in F. columnare. CONCLUSION: The conjugation protocol developed as part of this study represents a significant first step towards the development of a robust set of genetic tools for the manipulation of F. columnare. The availability of this protocol will facilitate studies aimed at developing a deeper understanding of the virulence mechanisms of this important pathogen.

Molecular epidemiology of spinocerebellar ataxia type 6.

We performed a population-based clinical and molecular genetic study of spinocerebellar ataxia type 6 (SCA6) in the northeast of England. The minimum point prevalence of SCA6 was 1.59 in 100,000 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.04-2.14), and the number of individuals who either had SCA6 or are at risk of developing SCA6 was at least 5.21 in 100,000 (95% CI, 4.31-6.10), or 1 in 19,210. Microsatellite analysis of the CACNA1A gene indicated a founder effect for SCA6 within this region.

Health professionals' views of contracting for infection control in the NHS internal market.

This paper reports a national study which investigated the involvement of infection control professionals in (and their views about) the formal processes of contracting for health care in the NHS internal market. Health care professionals needed to be involved contracting, if it was to be effective. The study found that many infection control professionals were not, in fact, involved in contracting, while the importance of both contracts and informal professional networks were recognised But respondents did not think that their professional networks entirely compensated for their lack of involvement in contracting. As formal agreements continue to be central to achieving quality of care in the post-internal market NHS, infection control professionals need to be involved in specification and implementation of these arrangements.

The use of contracts in the management of infectious disease related risk in the NHS internal market.

The paper reports a unique study of contracting for infectious disease control in the English National Health Service internal market. New-institutional economic and socio-legal theories are used to predict that it will not be possible to make contracts for the control of infectious disease which are complete with respect to either the allocation of financial risk or the specification of quality standards. Socio-legal theory predicts that in some circumstances informal relationships (known as networks or relational contracts) can evolve to compensate for some of the deficiencies of incomplete contracts. NHS policy makers are shown to have expected and continue to expect that contracts can be complete. The study comprised five in-depth case studies of contracting in different local areas in England and a national survey of all infection control professionals. The results confirm the theoretical predictions. Contracts were not complete, and some of the elements of relational contracts were present. These elements did not, however, fully compensate for the lack of clear accountability caused by contractual incompleteness.