Evaluation of patients diagnosed with brain death in the intensive care unit: 10 years of tertiary center experience in Istanbul.

OBJECTIVE: Early and accurate diagnosis of brain death in intensive care units (ICU) is essential for organ transplantation. This study aimed to evaluate the cases diagnosed with brain death in the ICU of a tertiary center in Istanbul. METHODS: The cases diagnosed as brain death in the ICU during the ten years between January 2013 and September 2022 were evaluated retrospectively. The demographic characteristics of the patients, the diagnosis of hospitalization in the ICU, the time from arrival to the ICU until the diagnosis of brain death, the somatic survival time after the diagnosis of brain death, the acceptance rate of organ donation by the families and the organs removed were evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 44 patients were diagnosed with brain death. The mean age of the cases was 39.7±17.4 years, and 63% were male. The most common hospitalization diagnosis was intracranial hemorrhage (81.8%). Traffic accidents, hypertensive and aneurysm-related hemorrhages, gunshot wounds, and falls from height were the most common causes of intracranial hemorrhage. Patients were admitted to the ICU most frequently from the emergency department (54%). The mean time to brain death was 7.9±6.2 days, and the somatic survival time was 1.9±1.9 days in patients who did not receive organ transplantation. While the apnea test was positive in 91% of the cases, the apnea test could not be completed in 9% of the cases. While relatives of 7% (n=3) of the cases accepted organ donation, a patient was not allowed to be an organ donor for medical reasons. Organ transplantation was performed in two patients (5%). CONCLUSION: As in the whole world, getting treatment as soon as possible for the patients waiting on the organ transplant list in Turkiye by increasing the number of organs to be obtained from cadavers. In cases with suspected brain death in the ICU, diagnosing brain death as soon as possible and conducting family interviews with trained organ transplant coordinators will increase the number of cadaver donors. However, we think policies should be developed to ensure that society is informed and encouraged about brain death and organ donation.

Effect of Different Doses of Sugammadex on Recovery and Hemodynamic Parameters in Reversing Neuromuscular Blockade in Patients Undergoing Electroconvulsive Therapy.

Objective: This retrospective observational study aimed to investigate the effect of different doses of sugammadex used in reversing neuromuscular blockade in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) procedures on patient recovery and hemodynamic measurements. Methods: Anesthesia induction was performed using propofol (1 mg/kg) and rocuronium (0.4 mg/kg). Patients were classified into group 2 (2 mg/kg) and group 3 (3 mg/kg) according to the dose of sugammadex used to reverse neuromuscular blockade. The patient's spontaneous breathing time, eye-opening time, time to comply with voluntary commands, time to reach Modified Aldrete score (MAS) 9, complications, and hemodynamic data were analyzed. Results: In total, 314 ECT sessions were performed on 46 patients. The average age of the patients was 38.3±12.6 years, and 56.6% (n=26) were male. While the average number of ECTs applied to the patients was 6.8±2.8, the average seizure duration was 28.2±12.7 seconds. The most common diagnosis (32.7%) in patients who underwent ECT was bipolar disorder. The average time to recovery of spontaneous breathing, eyeopening time, time to comply with voluntary commands, and time to reach MAS 9 were found to be significantly lower in group 3 (p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0.001, and p=0.002, respectively). Tooth damage was observed in 0.3% (n=1) and tongue abrasion in 0.6% (n=2) of the cases. Hemodynamic measurements were similar between groups (p>0.05). Conclusions: Sugammadex used at a dose of 3 mg/kg in ECT procedures significantly reduces recovery times compared with 2 mg/kg. However, both doses can be safely and cost-effectively used to reverse the neuromuscular blockade provided by 0.4 mg/kg rocuronium.

Isolated bilateral tinnitus after spinal anesthesia: A case report.

Rarely, endolymphatic hydrops may occur after spinal anesthesia due to the perforation of the dural membrane and a decrease in cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Consequently, auditory complications such as tinnitus and hearing loss may arise. Tinnitus can be accompanied by headache and hearing loss. In this case report, isolated bilateral tinnitus, which occurred in the early intraoperative period and spontaneously regressed in a patient who underwent bilateral tubal ligation under spinal anesthesia, is presented.

Relationship of Frontal QRS-T Angle with Coronary Flow Grade and Adverse Events Before Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Patients with Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction.

OBJECTIVE: Electrocardiography is used in the initial risk assessment of patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. The frontal QRS-T angle is an electrocardiography parameter that may be affected by the alterations in the coronary blood flow. This study aimed to explore the relationship of the frontal QRS-T angle with coronary flow grade and adverse events in non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients. METHODS: A total of 191 non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients were divided into 2 groups based on the thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) flow level on coronary angiography before revascularization, namely TIMI 0/1 and TIMI 2/3. The frontal QRS-T angle obtained before revascularization was compared between the groups and its relationship with adverse events was examined. In-hospital all-cause mortality, repeat target lesion revascular-ization, new-onset heart failure, ventricular arrhythmias, and atrial fibrillation were defined as adverse events. RESULTS: Frontal QRS-T angle was wider in the patients with TIMI 0/1 flow compared to the patients with TIMI 2/3 flow (P  <  0.001). The frontal QRS-T angle was determined to be a predictor of TIMI flow grade 0/1 before revascularization in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (odds ratio: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.30-1.75; P < 0.001). The frontal QRS-T angle was a predictor of the adverse events during hospitalization in the patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (odds ratio: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.04-1.19; P = 0.002). The cut-off values of the frontal QRS-T angle for TIMI flow grade and adverse events were determined to be 73.5°, based on receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. CONCLUSION: Increased frontal QRS-T angle may be a useful electrocardiography parameter for determining TIMI flow grade and the need for an early invasive strategy in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction.

New Biomarkers (Endocan, Interleukin-17, and Thrombospondin-4) for the Diagnosis, Assessment of Severity, and Follow-Up of Peripheral Arterial Disease.

The present study evaluated the use of endocan, interleukin-17 (IL-17), and thrombospondin-4 (TSP-4) blood levels as potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and follow-up of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Patients with PAD (Rutherford categories I, II, and III) who were admitted between March 2020 and March 2022 for cardiovascular surgery or outpatient clinic follow-up were included. The patients (n = 60) were divided into 2 groups: medical treatment (n = 30) and surgical treatment (n = 30). In addition, a control group (n = 30) was created for comparison. Endocan, IL-17, and TSP-4 blood levels were measured at the time of diagnosis and at the first month after treatment. Endocan and IL-17 values were found to be significantly higher in both groups that underwent medical (259.7 ± 46 pg/mL, 63.7 ± 16.6 pg/mL) and surgical (290.3 ± 84.5 pg/mL, 66.4 ± 19.6 pg/mL) treatment than the control group (187.4 ± 34.5 pg/mL, 56.5 ± 7.2 pg/mL P < .001). Tsp-4 value was found to be significantly higher only in the surgical treatment group (15 ± 4.3 ng/mL) than the control group (12.9 ± 1.4 ng/mL P < .05). The decreases in endocan, IL-17, and TSP-4 levels at the first month of treatment in both groups were also significant (P < .001). A combination of classical and these new biomarkers could be included in PAD screening, early diagnosis, severity determination, and follow-up protocols in order to provide effective assessment in clinical practice.

Evaluation of critically ill obstetric patients treated in an intensive care unit during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Although obstetric morbidity and mortality have decreased recently, rates are still high enough to constitute a significant health problem. With the COVID-19 pandemic, many obstetric patients have required treatment in intensive care units (ICU). OBJECTIVES: Evaluate critical obstetric patients who were treated in an ICU for COVID-19 and followed up for 90 days. DESIGN: Medical record review SETTING: Intensive care unit PATIENTS AND METHODS: Obstetric patients admitted to the ICU between 15 March 2020 and 15 March 2022 and followed up for at least 90 days were evaluated retrospectively. Patients with and without COVID-19 were compared by gestational week, indications, comorbidities, length of stay in the hospital and ICU, requirement for mechanical ventilation, blood transfusion, renal replacement therapy (RRT), plasmapheresis, ICU scores, and mortality. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Clinical outcomes and mortality. SAMPLE SIZE AND CHARACTERISTICS: 102 patients with a mean (SD) maternal age of 29.1 (6.3) years, and median (IQR) length of gestation of 35.0 (7.8) weeks. RESULTS: About 30% (n=31) of the patients were positive for COVID-19. Most (87.2%) were cesarean deliveries; 4.9% vaginal (8.7% did not deliver). COVID-19, eclampsia/preeclampsia, and postpartum hemorrhage were the most common ICU indications. While the 28-day mortality was 19.3% (n=6) in the COVID-19 group, it was 1.4% (n=1) in the non-COVID-19 group (P<.001). The gestational period was significantly shorter in the COVID-19 group (P=.01) while the duration of stay in ICU (P<.001) and mechanical ventilation (P=.03), lactate (P=.002), blood transfusions (P=.001), plasmapheresis requirements (P=.02), and 28-day mortality were significantly higher (P<.001). APACHE-2 scores (P=.007), duration of stay in ICU (P<.001) and mechanical ventilation (P<.001), RRT (P=.007), and plasmapheresis requirements (P=.005) were significantly higher in patients who died than in those who were discharged. CONCLUSION: The most common indication for ICU admission was COVID-19. The APACHE-2 scoring was helpful in predicting mortality. We think multicenter studies with larger sample sizes are needed for COVID-19 obstetric patients. In addition to greater mortality and morbidity, the infection may affect newborn outcomes by causing premature birth. LIMITATIONS: Retrospective, single-center, small population size. CONFLICT OF INTEREST: None.

Do Patients With Arterial Occlusive Disease of Different Etiologies Benefit Equally From Cilostazol?

BACKGROUND: Cilostazol is a guideline-recommended drug that improves intermittent claudication and quality of life in patients with chronic atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease. The drug is used for most etiologies of arterial occlusive diseases in clinical practice. This study aimed to evaluate whether patients benefit equally from cilostazol regardless of etiology. METHODS: Patients on cilostazol were divided into 4 groups according to arterial occlusive disease etiology: (1) atherosclerosis, (2) diabetic angiopathy, (3) embolism/thrombosis, and (4) Buerger disease. Patients' maximum walking distance, ankle-brachial index score and distal tissue oxygen saturation (Sto2), clinical improvement onset time, ability to reach maximum benefit time, vascular surgeries, and wounds were compared before they started cilostazol and after 12 months. Results were evaluated at a statistical significance of P < .05. RESULTS: In 194 patients, 307 target extremities were evaluated in the 4 disease groups. After cilostazol use, maximum walking distance, ankle-brachial index score, and distal Sto2 increased significantly in all groups (P < .001), but distal Sto2 in the diabetic angiopathy and Buerger disease groups was significantly lower than in the atherosclerosis group (P < .001). Ankle-brachial index and distal Sto2 differences in the Buerger disease group were significantly lower (both P < .001). The vascular surgery counts decreased significantly in the atherosclerosis and embolism/thrombosis groups (P = .019 and P = .004, respectively). CONCLUSION: Patients with nonatherosclerotic arterial occlusive disease also benefit from cilostazol, but patients with Buerger disease or diabetic angiopathy seem to benefit less. Combining cilostazol with anticoagulant or antiaggregant agents and closer monitoring of these patients may produce better results.

The effect of middle cerebral artery peak systolic velocity on prognosis in early and late-onset fetal growth restriction.

OBJECTIVES: We aim to investigate the utility of middle cerebral artery peak systolic velocity (MCA PSV) Doppler in determining the perinatal mortality and morbidity in serial Doppler measurements from the time of diagnosis to the delivery of complicated cases with fetal growth restriction (FGR). METHODS: At 24-38 weeks of gestation, 65 pregnant women diagnosed with FGR were included in the study. The fetal biometry measurements, MCA pulsatility index (PI), and MCA PSV Doppler evaluation of the cases formed at the diagnosis and the delivery were recorded. Gestational weeks, birth weights, APGAR scores, cord pH values, NICU (neonatal intensive care unit) admission, NICU duration of stay, and perinatal morbidity parameters such as RDS (respiratory distress syndrome), BPD (bronchopulmonary dysplasia), NEC (necrotizing enterocolitis), sepsis and perinatal mortality were compared. The patients were divided into two groups: early and late-onset fetal growth restriction. Perinatal morbidity and mortality were accepted as adverse perinatal outcomes. RESULTS: MCA PSV above the 95th percentile at the diagnosis and delivery time was seen at a significantly higher rate with adverse perinatal outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that evaluating MCA PSV with Doppler can be a helpful diagnostic method for early diagnosis of restriction and hypoxic fetuses. Also, it may be used in clinics as a noninvasive method to predict neonatal prognosis.

A New Predictor of Obstructive Coronary Artery Ectasia in Patients with Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome: The Atherogenic Index of Plasma / Un nuevo predictor de ectasia obstructiva de la arteria coronaria en pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo sin elevación del segmento ST: el índice aterogénico del plasma

Introduction: Coronary artery ectasia (CAE) is one of the uncommon cardiovascular disorders with a clinical spectrum ranging from asymptomatic cases to myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of CAE. Recently, it has been determined that the atherogenic index of plasma (AIP) is a strong predictive marker for atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is a relationship between obstructive CAE and AIP in patients with non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS). Materials and methods: In this retrospective study, hospital electronic patient records were retrospectively examined. A total of 213 NSTE-ACS patients were included in the study. Patients were divided into two groups according to non-obstructive and obstructive CAE. The AIP value was compared between groups and regression analysis evaluated whether it is an indicator to predict the risk of obstructive CAE. Results: The AIP value was found to be numerically and statistically significant in the obstructive CAE group compared to the non-obstructive CAE group. The multivariate logistic regression analysis identified AIP as a predictor of obstructive CAE in NSTE-ACS patients in the receiver operating curve analysis, AIP values above 0.33 had 90% sensitivity and 68% specificity to predict obstructive CAE in NSTE-ACS patients. Conclusions: AIP values were increased in the presence of obstructive CAE in NSTE-ACS patients. Our findings suggest that AIP may be involved in the pathogenesis of obstructive CAE. (AU)

Introducción: La ectasia arterial coronaria (EAC) es uno de los trastornos cardiovasculares poco frecuentes con un espectro clínico que va desde casos asintomáticos hasta infarto de miocardio. La aterosclerosis juega un papel fundamental en la patogenia de la CAE. Recientemente, se ha determinado que el índice aterogénico del plasma (AIP) es un fuerte marcador predictivo de aterosclerosis. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar si existe una relación entre el CAE obstructivo y la PAI en pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo sin elevación del segmento ST (SCASEST). Materiales y métodos: En este estudio retrospectivo, se examinaron retrospectivamente las historias clínicas electrónicas de los pacientes. Se incluyeron en el estudio un total de 213 pacientes con SCASEST. Los pacientes se dividieron en dos grupos según el CAE obstructivo y no obstructivo. El valor de AIP se comparó entre grupos y el análisis de regresión evaluó si es un indicador para predecir el riesgo de EAC obstructivo. Resultados: Se encontró que el valor AIP era numérica y estadísticamente significativo en el grupo CAE obstructivo en comparación con el grupo CAE no obstructivo. El análisis de regresión logística multivariable identificó a la AIP como predictor de EAC obstructiva en pacientes con SCASEST en el análisis de la curva operativa del receptor, valores de AIP superiores a 0,33 tenían una sensibilidad del 90 % y una especificidad del 68 % para predecir EAC obstructiva en pacientes con SCASEST. Conclusiones: Los valores de AIP se incrementaron en presencia de EAC obstructivo en pacientes con SCASEST. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que AIP puede estar involucrado en la patogenia de CAE obstructivo. (AU)

Fibrosis-4 index: a new marker to predict non-dipper blood pressure pattern in patients with newly diagnosed hypertension / Índice de fibrosis-4: un nuevo marcador para predecir el patrón de presión arterial no dipper en pacientes con hipertensión recién diagnosticada

Introduction: Epicardial fat tissue (EFT) is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. This study aimed to investigate whether there is a relationship between the fibrosis-4 index (FIB-4 index) and EFT in newly-diagnosed hypertensive patients and explore the usability of the FIB-4 index in predicting non-dipper blood pressure (BP) pattern. Materials and methods: Our case–control study consisted of 210 patients in 3 groups according to BP values, namely normotensive, dipper, and non-dipper groups. Transthoracic echocardiography and 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring were performed in all patients. Results: The median FIB-4 index was higher in the non-dipper group [1.56 (1.10-2)] than in the dipper [1 (0.71-1.32)] and normotensive groups [0.96 (0.69-1.32)] (p < 0.001, for both). A positive correlation was observed between EFT and the FIB-4 index (r=0.389, p<0.001). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, EFT (odds ratio (OR): 0.506, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.288-2.135; p<0.001) and FIB-4 index (OR: 1.099, 95% CI: 1.621–5.556; p<0.001) were found to be independent predictors of non-dipper BP. In the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the FIB-4 index had 68% sensitivity and 72% specificity at a value >1.25 (area under the curve: 0.751, 95%CI: 0.679-0.823, p<0.001). Conclusions: In newly-diagnosed hypertensive people, the FIB-4 index is related to non-dipper BP patterns. FIB-4 index appears to be a helpful tool in assessing risk associated with cardiovascular disease (AU)

Introducción: El tejido graso epicárdico (TGE) es un importante factor de riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar si existe una relación entre el índice de fibrosis-4 (índice FIB-4) y TGE en pacientes hipertensos recién diagnosticados y explorar la utilidad del índice FIB-4 para predecir la presión arterial (PA) no dipper. patrón. Materiales y métodos: Nuestro estudio de casos y controles consistió en 210 pacientes en 3 grupos según los valores de PA, a saber, grupos normotensos, dipper y no dipper. A todos los pacientes se les realizó ecocardiografía transtorácica y monitorización ambulatoria de la PA de 24 h. Resultados: La mediana del índice FIB-4 fue mayor en el grupo no dipper [1,56 (1,10-2)] que en los grupos dipper [1 (0,71-1,32)] y normotensos [0,96 (0,69-1,32)] (p<0.001, para ambos). Se observó una correlación positiva entre TGE y el índice FIB-4 (r = 0,389, p < 0,001). En análisis de regresión logística multivariante, EFT (odds ratio (OR): 0,506, intervalo de confianza (IC) 95%: 1,288-2,135; p<0,001) e índice FIB-4 (OR: 1,099, IC95%: 1,621-5,556; p<0,001) resultaron ser predictores independientes de PA no dipper. En el análisis de la curva característica operativa del receptor, el índice FIB-4 tuvo una sensibilidad del 68 % y una especificidad del 72 % a un valor >1,25 (área bajo la curva: 0,751, IC95%: 0,679-0,823, p<0,001). Conclusiones: En hipertensos de nuevo diagnóstico, el índice FIB-4 se relaciona con patrones de PA no dipper. El índice FIB-4 parece ser una herramienta útil para evaluar el riesgo asociado con la enfermedad cardiovascular (AU)

[Horner's syndrome during vaginal delivery with epidural analgesia]. / Epidural analjezi ile vajinal dogum sirasinda gelisen Horner sendromu.

One of the most severe pains that women can experience throughout their lives is birth pain. Epidural analgesia is the ideal method to provide pain control in vaginal delivery. Horner syndrome is a rare complication of epidural analgesia. In pregnant women, Horner syndrome may be seen more frequently due to epidural analgesia. It is characterized by ptosis, myosis, enophthalmos, anisocoria, conjunctival hyperemia, flashing on the affected face and sweating record (anhydroz). It usually resolves without a permanent neurological defect. Stellate, cervical and brachial plexus blocks, thoracic, lumbar and sacral region epidural anesthesia applications are among the most common causes of Horner syndrome associated with anesthesia applications. The non-anesthetic causes of Horner syndrome include head and neck surgery, hypothalamus-thalamus and brainstem-related lesions, trauma to the head and neck, and pulmonary apical tumors associated with malignancy. In this case report, we want-ed to present Horner syndrome in vaginal delivery with epidural analgesia. All pregnant women undergoing epidural analgesia should be closely followed up, taking into account possible complications and taking necessary precautions.

Struggle in struggle: Surgical treatment of Leriche syndrome in a horseshoe kidney patient.

Coexistence of infrarenal aortic occlusion, known as Leriche syndrome, and horseshoe kidney is extremely rare. The isthmus of the latter, which usually contains functional renal parenchyma, complicates surgery. A 52-year-old male patient with Leriche syndrome and concomitant horseshoe kidney disease underwent a successful surgical repair. A median incision and transperitoneal approach were used to explore the infrarenal aorta, aortoiliac bifurcation, iliac arteries, and horseshoe kidney. The isthmus was connecting the lower poles over the aortoiliac bifurcation. Aortoplasty with aortobifemoral bypass was performed, preserving the horseshoe kidney and its accessory arteries. Operative and postoperative periods were uneventful. At eight months of follow-up, the patient was asymptomatic in daily activities.

A combined treatment using ethylmethane sulfonate and ultraviolet light to compare amylase production by three Bacillus sp. isolates.

In this study, three Bacillus sp.-producing amylase enzymes were isolated from soil samples and identified using 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Amylase production and total protein productions were spectrophotometrically measured. The following media were tested to increase enzyme production: LB medium and molasses. Three Bacillus sp. were identified as follows: Bacillus subtilis subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus cereus. Amylase production levels were in the range of 10 U/mL, whereas total protein production levels were at 15 mg/mL. Higher amylase activity was found in the Bacillus subtilis isolate. Ethylmethane sulfonate (EMS) and ultraviolet (UV) mutagenesis in combination were applied to compare amylase production. Amylase activity was increased to around 58% in the treatment with 0.03 mL of EMS and UV when compared to the control group. A pilot scale bioreactor with a total working volume of 10 liters was used to produce amylase by B. subtilis subtilis. In conclusion, B. subtilis subtilis can be used to produce amylase enzyme for various industrial purposes, and, for the first time, the amylase activities of B. subtilis can be enhanced with EMS and UV treatment.

Total neuron numbers in CA1-4 sectors of the dog hippocampus.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Early reports addressed morphological asymmetry in the cross-sectional width of the rat hippocampus. The present study was aimed at counting total number of neurons in CA1-4 sectors and the subiculum of the dog hippocampus as well as investigating possible left /right and male/female asymmetry. METHODS: Adult mongrel dogs (8 female and 5 male) were assessed by the right and left pawedness and sacrificed by exsanguinations. In each hippocampus dissected, the total neuron numbers of CAs and subiculum were estimated by the physical fractioning method. RESULTS: Significant hemispheric asymmetries were found in the number of pyramidal cells of CA1, CA3/2, CA4 and the subiculum. Sex difference was also found in the subiculum, in favour of the males. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Our study indicated a left dominant asymmetry in males and right dominancy in females as well as no functional asymmetry in specific regions of the dog hippocampus. Further investigations are necessary to verify the hypothesis that hippocampal morphological asymmetries in normal subjects are functionally related in memory or in cognitive skills.

The relationships of dog hippocampus to sex and paw preference.

Previous studies have described paw preference and asymmetry in dog brains. Electrical activity of the dorsal hippocampus also indicated the existence of hippocampal asymmetry in dogs. In the present study, the possible paw and sex-related asymmetries and right-left differences in dog hippocampus were investigated. The hippocampus was dissected and weighed. Each hippocampus was cut into slices by the slicing apparatus placed horizontally on the tissues. The volumetric measurements were performed using the formula modified from the Cavalieri principle. The present study indicated the significant sex and paw differences and no right-left asymmetry in dog hippocampi. The morphological asymmetries in normal subjects might be related to functional hippocampal asymmetries in memory or in cognitive skills.