Background 210Po activity concentrations in Greenland marine biota and dose assessment.

Polonium-210 (210Po) is a radionuclide sentinel as it bioaccumulates in marine organisms, thereby being the main contributor to committed dietary doses in seafood consumers. Although seafood and marine mammals are an important part of the traditional Inuit diet, there is a general lack of information on the 210Po concentrations in the Greenlandic marine food chain leading to the human consumer. Here, we determine background 210Po concentrations in edible parts of different marine organisms from Greenland and provide a dose assessment. Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), organs of ringed seal (Pusa hispida) and polar bear (Ursus maritimus) displayed significantly elevated 210Po concentrations in respect to all other studied organisms (p < 0.001). 210Po concentrations ranged from 0.02 Bq kg-1, w.w. in Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) muscle to 78 Bq kg-1, w.w. and 202 Bq kg-1, w.w. in ringed seal muscle and kidneys, respectively. 210Po concentration ratio for edible parts increases in the order bladderwrack (Fucus Vesiculosus), northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis), blue mussels, and from fish species to ringed seal and polar bear. 210Po distribution in fish, ringed seal, and polar bear follows a general pattern, the lowest concentrations were in muscle, and the highest concentrations were in the organs involved in metabolism. The derived 210Po annual absorbed dose in edible parts of studied marine organisms are several orders of magnitude lower than the recommended dose rate screening value of 10 µGy h-1. Effective doses from intake of 210Po to Greenland average children (1.4 mSv y-1), and high seafood and marine mammal consumers (2 mSv y-1 for adults and 3.6 mSv y-1 for children) are higher than the world average annual effective dose due to ingestion of naturally occurring radionuclides.

210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in Greenlandic seabirds and dose assessment.

Naturally occurring radionuclides, in particular, polonium-210 (210Po), have a greater contribution than anthropogenic radionuclides to the annual effective dose received by the general public due to consumption of seafood. Knowledge of potential trophic sources and transfer of 210Po to seabird species and subsequently to the Greenlandic people is, however, still poor. Here, we assess the transfer of 210Po and 210Pb to seabirds sampled during autumn and winter 2017 and 2018 in Greenland and provide a dose assessment. The activity concentrations of 210Po in muscle and liver, respectively, ranged from 0.2 ± 0.1 Bq kg-1 w.w. in glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) to 21.2 ± 22.6 Bq kg-1 w.w. in thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia) and from 32.0 ± 9.4 Bq kg-1 w.w. in common eider (Somateria mollissima) to 40.5 ± 49.0 Bq kg-1 w.w. in thick-billed murre. 210Po was non-uniformly distributed in the body of thick-billed murre. Kidneys and feathers showed higher 210Po activity concentrations than heart and bone. The 210Po/210Pb activity concentration ratios are higher than unity, indicating that 210Po is preferentially taken up by seabirds compared to its progenitor 210Pb. The derived annual absorbed dose from 210Po to the whole body of thick-billed murre was 6.4 × 102 ± 3.0 × 102 µGy. The annual effective dose to the average adult and representative person in Greenland due to ingestion of 210Po in seabirds was estimated to 13.0 µSv and 57.0 µSv, respectively. This derived dose is low and poses a slight risk, and risk communication is therefore deemed unnecessary.

Persistent organic pollutants and related biological responses measured in coastal fish using chemical and biological screening methods.

The aim of this study was to investigate the spatial distribution, levels of dioxin-like compounds (DLC), and biological responses in two fish species. The viviparous eelpout (Zoarces viviparus) was collected from various locations in the Baltic Sea and in fjords of Kattegat and Skagerrak, while shorthorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpius) was obtained at the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) polluted site in North West Greenland. Significant differences were detected both in contaminant levels and relative contributions from either polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD) or polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF or furans) and mono-ortho- and non-ortho (coplanar) polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCB). Fish from the eastern Baltic Sea generally displayed higher contributions from PCDD/F compared to dl-PCB, whereas dl-PCB were generally predominated in fish from Danish, Swedish, and German sites. Levels of dl-PCB in muscle tissues were above OSPAR environmental assessment criteria (EAC) for PCB118, indicating a potential risk of adverse biological effects in the ecosystem, whereas levels of the total WHO-TEQs were below threshold for sea food suggesting limited risks for humans. No significant relationships between levels of DLC (expressed as WHO-TEQ), and biological responses such as the induction of CYP1A enzymatic activity and fry reproductive disorders were observed in eelpout. No marked relationship between WHO-TEQ and combined biological aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated transactivity (expressed as AhR-TEQ) was noted. However, there was a positive correlation between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) metabolites and induction of CYP1A activity, suggesting that PAH exhibited greater potential than DLC to produce biological effects in eelpout from the Baltic Sea.

Trace elements determination in seawater by ICP-MS with on-line pre-concentration on a Chelex-100 column using a 'standard' instrument setup.

Trace element determination in seawater is analytically challenging due to the typically very low concentrations of the trace elements and the potential interference of the salt matrix. A common way to address the challenge is to pre-concentrate the trace elements on a chelating resin, then rinse the matrix elements from the resin and subsequently elute and detect the trace elements using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). This technique typically involves time-consuming pre-treatment of the samples for 'off-line' analyses or complicated sample introduction systems involving several pumps and valves for 'on-line' analyses. As an alternative, the following method offers a simple method for 'on-line' analyses of seawater by ICP-MS. As opposed to previous methods, excess seawater was pumped through the nebulizer of the ICP-MS during the pre-concentration step but the gas flow was adjusted so that the seawater was pumped out as waste without being sprayed into the instrument. Advantages of the method include: •Simple and convenient analyses of seawater requiring no changes to the 'standard' sample introduction system except from a resin-filled micro-column connected to the sample tube. The 'standard' sample introduction system refers to that used for routine digest-solution analyses of biota and sediment by ICP-MS using only one peristaltic pump; and•Accurate determination of the elements V, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb in a range of different seawater matrices verified by participation in 6 successive rounds of the international laboratory intercalibration program QUASIMEME.

A simple method to reduce the risk of cadmium exposure from consumption of Iceland scallops (Chlamys islandica) fished in Greenland.

This paper studied the levels and organ distribution of the toxic heavy metal cadmium in scallops from unpolluted Greenlandic waters. The scallops had an average cadmium concentration of 2.93 ± 0.94 µg/g wet weight in the total soft tissues and no concentration dependent effect was found for gender or size (both p>0.05). The kidney was the primary organ for cadmium accumulation with a mean of 226.2 ± 111.7 µg/g wet weight, and despite the small weight of the kidney, it appeared as the principal contributor of cadmium with 92% of the total cadmium body burden. The cadmium concentrations in the total soft tissues far exceeded the EU-limit of 1 µg/g wet weight for cadmium in bivalves. Based on this, selective evisceration of the cadmium-rich kidney and digestive gland during processing can be regarded as a reliable measure to be taken in order to reduce the cadmium content of scallops used for human consumption.

Modelling atmospheric bulk deposition of Pb, Zn and Cd near a former Pb-Zn mine in West Greenland using transplanted Flavocetraria nivalis lichens.

Atmospheric deposition of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) was investigated near the former Black Angel Pb-Zn mine in Maarmorilik, West Greenland during 2010-2011. Thalli of the lichen Flavocetraria nivalis were transplanted from an uncontaminated site into sites near the mine and collected the following year. At 20 of the total 21 sites, concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cd were significantly elevated in lichens after 1 year of transplantation compared to initial concentrations. Elevated concentrations were observed within a distance of approx. 20 km from the mining area. Concentrations decreased with increasing distance from the mine and the relation was well described using a power function with a negative exponent (r(2)=0.90; 0.83 and 0.83 for Pb; Zn and Cd). To examine the relation between metal concentrations/uptake in lichen transplants and atmospheric bulk deposition, 10 Bergerhoff dust samplers were placed near lichen transplants and samplers and lichens were collected after a 7-weeks exposure period. A significant linear correlation was observed between metal concentrations in lichen transplants and atmospheric bulk metal deposition (r(2)=0.94; 0.88 and 0.89 for Pb; Zn and Cd). Combining the results and including an area distribution within a defined metal deposition area, the "annual" deposition of Pb, Zn and Cd as dust was estimated during the 2010-2011 snow-free period (∼5 months). The results reveal that 20 years after mine closure, 770 kg Pb, 3700 kg Zn and 24 kg Cd were still being deposited as dust per year (snow-free period only) within a distance of 20 km from the mine.

What are the toxicological effects of mercury in Arctic biota?

This review critically evaluates the available mercury (Hg) data in Arctic marine biota and the Inuit population against toxicity threshold values. In particular marine top predators exhibit concentrations of mercury in their tissues and organs that are believed to exceed thresholds for biological effects. Species whose concentrations exceed threshold values include the polar bears (Ursus maritimus), beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas), pilot whale (Globicephala melas), hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), a few seabird species, and landlocked Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus). Toothed whales appear to be one of the most vulnerable groups, with high concentrations of mercury recorded in brain tissue with associated signs of neurochemical effects. Evidence of increasing concentrations in mercury in some biota in Arctic Canada and Greenland is therefore a concern with respect to ecosystem health.

Temporal monitoring of liver and kidney lesions in contaminated East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus) during 1999-2010.

Organohalogen contaminants bioaccumulate to high concentrations in tissues of polar bears (Ursus maritimus). The exposure levels are in the order to be toxic to inner organs like liver and kidney. We therefore investigated the temporal development of lesions in liver (n=115) and kidney (n=122) samples from East Greenland polar bears taken over the 12 year period from 1999 to 2010. Seven liver and seven kidney lesions were observed of which six were age-related. Controlling for this, the analyses showed that hepatic steatosis and renal cell infiltrations, glomerular sclerosis and tubular hyperplasia decreased over the investigated time period (all p<0.05). Similarly, hypertrophy of hepatic Ito cells, renal glomerular capillary wall thickening and interstitial fibrosis increased over the study period (all p<0.05). Regarding contaminant, concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in adipose tissue were negatively associated with hepatic mononuclear cell infiltrations (p=0.05) and a similar trend was found for Hg (p=0.09). Hexachlorobenzene was positively associated with portal cell infiltrations and hepatic lipid granulomas, while polychlorinated biphenyls were negatively associated with the prevalence of steatosis (both p<0.05) and a similar trend was found for hexachlorocyclohexanes (p=0.08). Mercury was positively correlated with the frequencies of hypertrophic Ito cells (p=0.002) and a similar trend was found for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (p=0.07). In renal tissue, hexachlorocyclohexanes were positively associated with medullar hyaline casts (p=0.03) and a similar trend was found for cell infiltrations (p=0.08). There was a trend of trans-nonachlor being positively associated with glomerular sclerosis (p=0.06) while dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes were negatively associated with tubular hyperplasia (p=0.02). These results suggest that specific liver and renal lesions have decreased or increased over time and that long-range transported organohalogen contaminants and mercury may be among the co-factors responsible for these observations. These relationships are important to take into account when biomonitoring health and pollution in wildlife species such as polar bears.

Perfluorinated compounds are related to breast cancer risk in Greenlandic Inuit: a case control study.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer for women in the western world. From very few cases an extraordinary increase in BC was observed in the Inuit population of Greenland and Canada although still lower than in western populations. Previous data suggest that exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) might contribute to the risk of BC. Rat studies showed that perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) cause significantly increase in mammary fibroadenomas. This study aimed at evaluating the association between serum levels of POPs/PFCs in Greenlandic Inuit BC cases and their controls, and whether the combined POP related effect on nuclear hormone receptors affect BC risk. METHODS: Thirty-one BC cases and 115 controls were sampled during 2000-2003 from various Greenlandic districts. The serum levels of POPs, PFCs, some metals and the combined serum POP related effect on estrogen- (ER), androgen- (AR) and Ah-receptor (AhR) transactivity were determined. Independent student t-test was used to compare the differences and the odds ratios were estimated by unconditional logistic regression models. RESULTS: We observed for the very first time a significant association between serum PFC levels and the risk of BC. The BC cases also showed a significantly higher concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls at the highest quartile. Also for the combined serum POP induced agonistic AR transactivity significant association to BC risk was found, and cases elicited a higher frequency of samples with significant POP related hormone-like agonistic ER transactivity. The AhR toxic equivalent was lowest in cases. CONCLUSIONS: The level of serum POPs, particularly PFCs, might be risk factors in the development of BC in Inuit. Hormone disruption by the combined serum POP related xenoestrogenic and xenoandrogenic activities may contribute to the risk of developing breast cancer in Inuit. Further investigations are needed to document these study conclusions.

Trends of lead and zinc in resident and transplanted Flavocetraria nivalis lichens near a former lead-zinc mine in West Greenland.

This study investigated spatial and temporal trends of lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) in resident and transplanted Flavocetraria nivalis lichens near the former Black Angel Mine in Maarmorilik, West Greenland. The objectives of the study were to evaluate resident and transplanted lichens for monitoring dust contamination and investigate trends in mine-related dust contamination near the mine. The mine operated between 1973 and 1990 and lichens were regularly sampled between 1986 and 2009. When the mine operated, elevated concentrations of Pb, Zn and other elements were observed in resident lichens up to 35 km from Maarmorilik. In the period after mine closure, Pb and Zn concentrations in resident lichens decreased with 1-11% and 0-6% per year, respectively. From 1996 to 2009, lichens were transplanted into the study area from an uncontaminated site and collected the following year. After 1 year, transplanted lichens showed elevated concentrations of Pb and Zn but contained consistently less Pb and Zn compared to resident lichens (24±23% and 63±37%, respectively). During the most recent sampling in 2009, transplanted lichens still showed significantly elevated Pb concentrations (up to a factor 270) within a distance of 20 km from Maarmorilik. Zinc concentrations were only significantly elevated at sites within 5 km from the mine. Time-series regression analyses showed no significant decreases in Pb and Zn in transplanted lichens at any of the sites during the period 1996-2009. In conclusion, our study showed that resident F. nivalis lichens could not be used to evaluate the recent annual dust contamination in Maarmorilik. Lichen transplants, however, were considered adequate for assessing spatial and temporal trends in Pb and Zn contamination from recently deposited dust. The continuous dispersal of contaminated dust in Maarmorilik almost 20 years after mine closure reveals a slow recovery from mining contamination in this arctic area.

Long-term response of an arctic fiord system to lead-zinc mining and submarine disposal of mine waste (Maarmorilik, West Greenland).

Contamination by lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) was studied in seawater, sediments, seaweeds and blue mussels near the former Black Angel Pb-Zn Mine in Maarmorilik, West Greenland. The mine operated during the period 1973-90 when mine waste (tailings and later waste rock) was discharged directly into the sea. Metal concentrations peaked during the mining period and Pb and Zn in seawater within the discharge area were measured up to 440 and 790 µg L⁻¹, respectively. Pb in fiord sediments, seaweeds and blue mussels just outside the discharge area were measured in concentrations up to 190, 84 and 2650 and Zn up to 300, 360 and 1190 µg g⁻¹ dry wt., respectively. Within the discharge area, seawater metal concentrations (especially Pb) decreased abruptly after mine closure. Metals concentrations in sediments and biota, however, decreased more slowly and two decades after mine closure seaweeds and blue mussels were still contaminated 12 km from the mine.

Body metal concentrations and glycogen reserves in earthworms (Dendrobaena octaedra) from contaminated and uncontaminated forest soil.

Stress originating from toxicants such as heavy metals can induce compensatory changes in the energy metabolism of organisms due to increased energy expenses associated with detoxification and excretion processes. These energy expenses may be reflected in the available energy reserves such as glycogen. In a field study the earthworm, Dendrobaena octaedra, was collected from polluted areas, and from unpolluted reference areas. If present in the environment, cadmium, lead and copper accumulated to high concentrations in D. octaedra. In contrast, other toxic metals such as aluminium, nickel and zinc appeared to be regulated and kept at low internal concentrations compared to soil concentrations. Lead, cadmium and copper accumulation did not correlate with glycogen reserves of individual worms. In contrast, aluminium, nickel and zinc were negatively correlated with glycogen reserves. These results suggest that coping with different metals in earthworms is associated with differential energy demands depending on the associated detoxification strategy.

Pb isotopes as tracers of mining-related Pb in lichens, seaweed and mussels near a former Pb-Zn mine in West Greenland.

Identification of mining-related contaminants is important in order to assess the spreading of contaminants from mining as well as for site remediation purposes. This study focuses on lead (Pb) contamination in biota near the abandoned 'Black Angel Mine' in West Greenland in the period 1988-2008. Stable Pb isotope ratios and total Pb concentrations were determined in lichens, seaweed and mussels as well as in marine sediments. The results show that natural background Pb ((207)Pb/(206)Pb: 0.704-0.767) and Pb originating from the mine ore ((207)Pb/(206)Pb: 0.955) have distinct isotopic fingerprints. Total Pb in lichens, seaweed, and mussels was measured at values up to 633, 19 and 1536 mg kg(-1) dry weight, respectively, and is shown to be a mixture of natural Pb and ore-Pb. This enables quantification of mining-related Pb and shows that application of Pb isotope data is a valuable tool for monitoring mining pollution.

Are liver and renal lesions in East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus) associated with high mercury levels?

BACKGROUND: In the Arctic, polar bears (Ursus maritimus) bio-accumulate mercury as they prey on polluted ringed seals (Phoca hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus). Studies have shown that polar bears from East Greenland are among the most mercury polluted species in the Arctic. It is unknown whether these levels are toxic to liver and kidney tissue. METHODS: We investigated the histopathological impact from anthropogenic long-range transported mercury on East Greenland polar bear liver (n = 59) and kidney (n = 57) tissues. RESULTS: Liver mercury levels ranged from 1.1-35.6 microg/g wet weight and renal levels ranged from 1-50 microg/g wet weight, of which 2 liver values and 9 kidney values were above known toxic threshold level of 30 microg/g wet weight in terrestrial mammals. Evaluated from age-correcting ANCOVA analyses, liver mercury levels were significantly higher in individuals with visible Ito cells (p < 0.02) and a similar trend was found for lipid granulomas (p = 0.07). Liver mercury levels were significantly lower in individuals with portal bile duct proliferation/fibrosis (p = 0.007) and a similar trend was found for proximal convoluted tubular hyalinisation in renal tissue (p = 0.07). CONCLUSION: Based on these relationships and the nature of the chronic inflammation we conclude that the lesions were likely a result of recurrent infections and ageing but that long-term exposure to mercury could not be excluded as a co-factor. The information is important as it is likely that tropospheric mercury depletion events will continue to increase the concentrations of this toxic heavy metal in the Sub Arctic and Arctic marine food webs.

Arctic vegetation damage by winter-generated coal mining pollution released upon thawing.

Acid mine drainage (known as AMD) is a well-known environmental problem resulting from the oxidation of sulfidic mine waste. In cold regions, AMD is often considered limited by low temperatures most of the year and observed environmental impact is related to pollution generated during the warm summer period. Here we show that heat generation within an oxidizing, sulfidic, coal-mining waste-rock pile in Svalbard (78 degrees N) is high enough to keep the pile warm (roughly 5 degrees C throughout the year) despite mean annual air temperatures below -5 degrees C. Consequently, weathering processes continue year-round within the waste-rock pile. During the winter, weathering products accumulate within the pile because of a frozen outer layer on the pile and are released as a flush within 2 weeks of soil thawing in the spring. Consequently, spring runoff water contains elevated concentrations of metals. Several of these metals are taken up and accumulated in plants where they reach phytotoxic levels, including aluminum and manganese. Laboratory experiments document that uptake of Al and Mn in native plant species is highly correlated with dissolved concentrations. Therefore, future remedial actions to control the adverse environmental impacts of cold region coal-mining need to pay more attention to winter processes including AMD generation and accumulation of weathering products.

Contaminants, diet, plasma fatty acids and smoking in Greenland 1999-2005.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to monitor and assess human exposure to pollution in the Arctic which presents a potential future health risk for the local populations. Epidemiological studies in Greenland have shown that human blood levels of several organic contaminants are very high, especially in the North where people depend on local food. In East Greenland (Ittoqqortoormiit (Scoresbysund)) the population shows the highest blood levels of several persistent organic pollutants found in Arctic countries, especially PCB, the levels of which exceed Canadian guideline levels. As in other Arctic countries, the predominant source of these contaminants is the local diet. However, other factors such as smoking may influence the metabolism and thereby the accumulation of toxic substances. STUDY DESIGN: This project is part of the human health program of the ongoing circumpolar "Artic Monitoring and Assessment Programme". Lifestyle, anthropometric factors, and dietary survey results covering 500 men and women from 6 Greenlandic districts were analyzed along with other factors blood lipids, fatty acid profiles, heavy metals and concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). RESULTS: The dietary survey showed that the traditional food on the average provided 20-30% of the total energy intake. However, the relative monthly meal intake of seal, whale, polar bear, fish and game, and the composition of imported food, varied between districts. Seal and polar bear intake, and, in particular all the plasma n-3 fatty acids, were significantly correlated with organic contaminant concentrations, (betaHCH, chlordanes, DDTs, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, PCBs, and toxaphenes) p<0.01(). After adjusting for age, district, dietary factors or plasma n-3 fatty acids, smoking was significantly correlated with high levels of all the above mentioned POPs. CONCLUSION: The main predictors of high contaminant levels in Greenland were age, district, male gender, smoking and high plasma n-3/n-6 ratio as a marker of high dietary intake of local marine mammals.

Time trends of mercury in feathers of West Greenland birds of prey during 1851-2003.

Temporal trends of mercury (Hg) in West Greenland gyrfalcons, peregrine falcons, and white-tailed eagles were determined over 150 years from 1851 to 2003. Hg was measured in the fifth primary feather. Results showed that Hg increased in the order gyrfalcon (lowest) < peregrine falcon (intermediate) < white-tailed eagle (highest). All species showed significant age accumulations, which were taken into account in the temporal trend analysis. Of eight time trend analyses (three species and three age groups of which one was missing), seven showed an increase in primary feather concentrations. Of these, four were significant at the 5% level, two were close to being significant, and one was not significant. The linear regressions of which three out of four showed significant increases were for juvenile and immature gyrfalcon and juvenile peregrine falcon, which covered only periods prior to 1960, owing to limited data from the last half-century. The two sample comparisons of Hg 10-year medians for adult peregrine falcons and juvenile and adult white-tailed eagles indicated a continued increase during recent decades. However, low levels of Hg in a few recent collections among gyrfalcons and peregrines could indicate a change in the increasing trend.

Dietary composition and contaminants in north Greenland, in the 1970s and 2004.

OBJECTIVES: The fatty acid composition and other nutrients in traditional Inuit food appear to provide some protection against diseases of affluent industrialized societies, such as cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. A transition towards increased amounts of imported food might increase the occurrence of these diseases among Inuit. However, since the 1970s it has become evident that the marine-based Inuit diet also contains high levels of potentially toxic lipophilic organic pollutants and heavy metals. Since these two opposing effects on health appear to be inseparable, the phenomenon has become known as "The Arctic Dilemma". However, both the fatty acid composition and the contaminant levels vary in Greenlandic food items. Thus, in theory, it is possible to compose a diet where the benefits outweigh the risks. Our objective was to compare traditional and modern meals in Greenland regarding dietary composition, content of n-3 fatty acids and contaminants. STUDY DESIGN: The present study was part of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP, comparing the results of dietary composition and nutrients in 177 traditional meals collected in Uummannaq municipality, north Greenland in 1976 with 90 meals sampled in Uummannaq town in 2004 under similar conditions. Eleven pesticides, 14 PCB congeners, heavy metals, selenium, and fatty acids were analysed in meals and blood samples from the participants. Contaminant levels were compared between 1976 and 2004 after adjustment for n-3 fatty acids, indicating local food content. RESULTS: Between the traditional meals collected 30 years ago and the meals from 2004, dramatic and significant changes have occurred in the dietary composition. The percentage of local food has decreased, and with it the intake of n-3 fatty acids. Calculated as daily intake, all but three contaminants had decreased significantly. However, this could be explained by the lower intake of local food. After adjustment for n-3 fatty acid content in the food, significant declines of concentration in the local food were evident only for PCBs and lead, whereas for mercury, DDTs, and chlordanes the levels were unchanged, and for hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphenes, the levels had increased significantly. CONCLUSION: The consumption of locally produced food has decreased in Greenland during the last 30 years and this has led to a reduction in the daily intake of contaminants. However, the concentrations of contaminants in local food items have not decreased, except for PCB and Lead. Therefore, we recommend that the consumption of local products is not increased beyond the present level, until the level of contaminants is reduced to a safer level.

Imposex occurrence in marine whelks at a military facility in the high Arctic.

Imposex was found in the Arctic whelk Buccinum finmarkianum at several marine stations off Thule Air Base, an US military facility in Northwest Greenland. This indicates a widespread contamination with the antifouling agents, tributyltin (TBT) or triphenyltin (TPhT) in the area, but such contamination was not supported by the organotin analyses in sediments, whelks and clams, which in general was below the analytical detection limit. Organotin concentrations above the detection limit were found only at one station close to a quay, where the highest frequency of imposex also occurred. This suggests that imposex in B. finmarkianum is a biomarker of TBT more sensitive than the detection limits, which the analytical chemistry could achieve in this study.

Lead shot from hunting as a source of lead in human blood.

This study investigates the relationship between the intake of birds hunted with lead shot and the lead concentration in human blood. Fifty adult men from Nuuk, Greenland took part in the study. From September 2003 to June 2004 they regularly gave blood samples and recorded how many birds they ate. We found a clear relationship between the number of bird meals and blood lead and also a clear seasonal variation. The concentration was highest in mid-winter when bird consumption is at its highest. Blood lead was low (15 microg/L, mean concentration) among the participants reporting not eating birds. Among those reporting to eat birds regularly, blood lead was significantly higher, up to 128 microg/L (mean concentration). Concentrations depended on the frequency of bird meals: the more the bird meals, the higher the resulting blood lead. This clear relationship points to lead shot as the dominating lead source to people in Greenland.