Two case studies of very long-term retention.

Here, we present two case studies of extremely long-term retention. In the first, Richard C. Atkinson (RCA) had learned word sequences during experiments for his dissertation. Sixty-seven years later, RCA relearned the same words either in the original order or in a scrambled order. RCA reported no conscious awareness that the words were those used in the dissertation, but his relearning was considerably better for the words in the original order. In the second case study, Denis Cousineau had searched displays of objects for the presence of a target. The targets and foils had been novel at the beginning of training, and his search rate improved markedly over about 70 sessions. After 22 years, retraining showed retention of much of this gain in rate of search, and the rate was markedly faster than search for new objects with the same structure as the trained set. We consider interpretations of these case studies for our understanding of long-term retention.

The Mind's Theorist / La Mente como Constructora de Teorías / O Teórico da Mente

Abstract The highest-order function of the mind is as a theorist. The memory system accumulates information about the outside world. The mind's theorist must sort through the information to formulate a theory about that world. The basic component of the system for theory building is a process called trolling. When the conscious mind is not being bombarded by external stimuli, or during certain stages of sleep, the mind's theorist trolls through memory searching for traces that contain similar information. If several traces are identified, analysis may yield information that was not evident when each was examined individually; reification of this sort can add new information to memory. The trolling process, and its ability to form new memory traces in the absence of external stimulation, is key to understanding many psychological phenomena.

Resumen La función superior de la mente es la de la construcción teórica. El sistema de memoria acumula información acerca del mundo externo y la mente constructora de teorías debe revisar dicha información para formular una teoría sobre el mundo. El componente básico del sistema de construcción teórica es un proceso llamado "trolling", que implica una búsqueda cuidadosa y sistemática. Cuando la mente consciente no está siendo bombardeada por estímulos externos o durante ciertas etapas del sueño, la mente teórica escudriña en la memoria buscando trazas que contengan información similar. Cuando se identifican varias trazas, es posible que el análisis arroje información que no era evidente al examinar cada traza de manera individual. Así, este tipo de reificación puede aportarle nueva información a la memoria. Dada su capacidad de formar nuevas trazas de memoria en ausencia de estímulos externos, el proceso de "trolling" es clave para la comprensión de muchos fenómenos psicológicos.

Resumo A maior função superior do cérebro é a de ser um teórico. O sistema da memória acumula informação sobre o mundo de fora. O teórico da mente deve investigar toda a informação para formular uma teoria sobre esse mundo. O componente básico do sistema para elaborar teorias é um processo chamado "trolling" (pesca de corrico). Quando a mente consciente não está sendo bombardeada por estímulos externos, ou durante certas etapas do sono, o teórico da mente "pesca" pelas memórias, procurando traços que contenham informações parecidas. Se vários traços são identificados, pode-se ter como resultado informação que não era evidente quando cada um foi analisado individualmente; reificação desse tipo pode adicionar nova informação à memória. O processo de "pescar" e sua habilidade para formar novos traços de memória na ausência de estímulos externos é fundamental para entender muitos fenômenos psicológicos.

Identification and subclassification of new Atoh1 derived cell populations during mouse spinal cord development.

At spinal levels, sensory information pertaining to body positioning (proprioception) is relayed to the cerebellum by the spinocerebellar tracts (SCTs). In the past we revealed the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor Atoh1 (Math1) to be important for establishing Dorsal Progenitor 1 (DP1) commissural interneurons, which comprise a subset of proprioceptive interneurons. Given there exists multiple subdivisions of the SCT we asked whether Atoh1 may also play a role in specifying other cell types in the spinal cord. Here, we reveal the generation of at least three DP1 derived interneuron populations that reside at spatially restricted positions along the rostral-caudal axis. Each of these cell populations expresses distinct markers and anatomically coincides with the cell bodies of the various subdivisions of the SCT. In addition, we found that as development proceeds (e.g. by E13.5) Atoh1 expression becomes apparent in the dorsal midline in the region of the roof plate (RP). Interestingly, we find that cells derived from Atoh1 expressing RP progenitors express SSEA-1, and in the absence of Atoh1 these progenitors become SOX9 positive. Altogether we reveal the existence of multiple Atoh1 dependent cell types in the spinal cord, and uncover a novel progenitor domain that arises late in development.