Polyamine metabolism in the Microsporidia.

Members of the phylum Microspora are all obligate intracellular parasites. Little is known concerning metabolic pathways in these parasites, some of which pose serious problems in immunocompromised patients. We investigated polyamine metabolism in the systemic pathogen Enterocytozoon cuniculi using intact pre-emergent spores, and cell-free preparations. We found both polyamine synthetic and interconversion pathways to be operative, as evidenced by conversion of ornithine into polyamines, and production of spermidine from spermine by pre-emergent spores. Recent developments in the antitumour field have highlighted the ability of bis-ethylated polyamine analogues to reduce polyamine levels and block growth of tumour cells. In light of enhanced polyamine uptake in Enc. cuniculi, we have begun to study bis-aryl 3-7-3 and bis-ethyl oligoamine analogues as leads for chemotherapy of microsporidia.

Polyamine metabolism as chemotherapeutic target in protozoan parasites.

Polyamines are essential cell constituents for all organisms. The present review highlights important differences in the synthesis, degradation, and interconversion of polyamines between the protozoan parasites (Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, Cryptosporidium parvum and Trichomonas vaginalis) and their mammalian hosts. Approaches include development of mono- and di-substituted polyamine analogs targeting polyamine interconversion, as well as more traditional targeting of synthetic enzymes and related pathways.

Novel alkylpolyamine analogues that possess both antitrypanosomal and antimicrosporidial activity.

A novel series of alkyl- or aralkyl-substituted polyamine analogues was synthesized containing a 3-7-3 polyamine backbone. These analogues were evaluated in vitro, and in one case in vivo, for activity as antitrypanosomal agents, and for activity against opportunistic infection caused by Microsporidia. Compound 21 inhibits trypanosomal growth with an IC(50) as low as 31nM, while compound 24 shows promising activity in vitro against trypanosomes, and against Microsporidia in vitro and in vivo.

Polyamine synthesis and interconversion by the Microsporidian Encephalitozoon cuniculi.

Polyamines are small cationic molecules necessary for growth and differentiation in all cells. Although mammalian cells have been studied extensively, particularly as targets of polyamine antagonists, i.e. antitumor agents, polyamine metabolism has also been studied as a potential drug target in microorganisms. Since little is known concerning polyamine metabolism in the microsporidia, we investigated it in Encephalitozoon cuniculi, a microspordian associated with disseminated infections in humans. Organisms were grown in RK-13 cells and harvested using Percoll gradients. Electron microscopy indicated that the fractions banding at 1.051-1.059/g/ml in a microgradient procedure, and 1.102-1.119/g/ml in a scaled-up procedure were nearly homogenous, consisting of pre-emergent (immature) spores which showed large arrays of ribosomes near polar filament coils. Intact purified pre-emergent spores incubated with [1H] ornithine and methionine synthesized putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, while [14C]spermine was converted to spermidine and putrescine. Polyamine production from ornithine was inhibitable by DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) but not by DL-alpha-difluoromethylarginine (DFMA). Cell-free extracts from mature spores released into the growth media had ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AdoMetdc), and spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase (SSAT) activities. ODC activity was inhibited by DFMO, but not by DFMA. AdoMetdc was putrescine-stimulated and inhibited by methylglyoxal-bis(guanylhydrazone); arginine decarboxylase activity could not be detected. It is apparent from these studies that Encephalitozoon cuniculi pre-emergent spores have a eukaryotic-type polyamine biosynthetic pathway and can interconvert exogenous polyamines. Pre-emergent spores were metabolically active with respect to polyamine synthesis and interconversion, while intact mature spores harvested from culture supernatants had little metabolic activity.

Polyamines with N-(3-phenylpropyl) substituents are effective competitive inhibitors of trypanothione reductase and trypanocidal agents.

Several N-(3-phenylpropyl)-substituted spermidine and spermine derivatives were prepared and found to be potent competitive inhibitors of Trypanosoma cruzi trypanothione reductase (seven compounds with Ki values < 5 microM are described). The most effective inhibitor studied was compound 12 with a Ki value of 0.151 microM. Six of the compounds described are also effective trypanocides with IC50 values < 1 microM.

In situ kinetic characterization of methylthioadenosine transport by the adenosine transporter (P2) of the African Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

African trypanosomes are parasitic flagellates that live in the connective tissues of the host. Trypanosomes must obtain from their host adenine/adenosine and other nucleosides that can be salvaged through enzymatic cleavage. Methylthioadenosine (MTA) is a byproduct of polyamine metabolism, formed from the donation of an aminopropyl moiety by decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine (dcAdoMet) to form spermidine. MTA is then cleaved phosphorolytically by MTA phosphorylase to methylthioribose-1-phosphate (MTR-1-P) and adenine. The uptake of MTA was compared with that of adenosine in two strains: Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. The K(m) values for MTA and adenosine (with 5 mM inosine) transport by T. b. brucei were 1.4 and 0.175 mM, and the V(max) values were 70 and 7.8 micromol/L/min, respectively. The K(m) values for T. b. rhodesiense MTA and adenosine (with 5 mM inosine) transport were 1.2 and 0.11 mM, and the V(max) values were 52.6 and 2.9 micromol/L/min, respectively. Since MTA was not competitive with either AdoMet (100 microM), inosine (100 microM), or the methionine precursor ketomethylthiobutyrate (100 microM), it appears that MTA enters through the P(2) (adenosine/adenine) transport site. From this study and our previous work, we determined that these organisms transport adenylated intermediates of methionine metabolism found in sera for purine salvage and as an ancillary source of methionine. The significant ability of African trypanosomes to transport MTA and related intermediates is an important consideration in the design and development of selective chemotherapeutic agents.

Inducible resistance to oxidant stress in the protozoan Leishmania chagasi.

Leishmania sp. protozoa are introduced into a mammalian skin by a sandfly vector, whereupon they encounter increased temperature and toxic oxidants generated during phagocytosis. We studied the effects of 37 degrees C "heat shock" or sublethal menadione, which generates superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, on Leishmania chagasi virulence. Both heat and menadione caused parasites to become more resistant to H(2)O(2)-mediated toxicity. Peroxide resistance was also induced as promastigotes developed in culture from logarithmic to their virulent stationary phase form. Peroxide resistance was not associated with an increase in reduced thiols (trypanothione and glutathione) or increased activity of ornithine decarboxylase, which is rate-limiting in trypanothione synthesis. Membrane lipophosphoglycan increased in size as parasites developed to stationary phase but not after environmental exposures. Instead, parasites underwent a heat shock response upon exposure to heat or sublethal menadione, detected by increased levels of HSP70. Transfection of promastigotes with L. chagasi HSP70 caused a heat-inducible increase in resistance to peroxide, implying it is involved in antioxidant defense. We conclude that leishmania have redundant mechanisms for resisting toxic oxidants. Some are induced during developmental change and others are induced in response to environmental stress.

Kinetics of methionine transport and metabolism by Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

Methionine is an essential amino acid for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms; however, little is known concerning its utilization in African trypanosomes, protozoa of the Trypanosoma brucei group. This study explored the Michaelis-Menten kinetic constants for transport and pool formation as well as metabolic utilization of methionine by two divergent strains of African trypanosomes, Trypanosoma brucei brucei (a veterinary pathogen), highly sensitive to trypanocidal agents, and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (a human pathogenic isolate), highly refractory to trypanocidal arsenicals. The Michaelis-Menten constants derived by Hanes-Woolf analysis for transport of methionine for T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense, respectively, were as follows: K(M) values, 1. 15 and 1.75 mM; V(max) values, 3.97 x 10(-5) and 4.86 x 10(-5) mol/L/min. Very similar values were obtained by Lineweaver-Burk analysis (K(M), 0.25 and 1.0 mM; V(max), 1 x 10(-5) and 2.0 x 10(-5) mol/L/min, T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense, respectively). Cooperativity analyses by Hill (log-log) plot gave Hill coefficients (n) of 6 and 2 for T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense, respectively. Cytosolic accumulation of methionine after 10-min incubation with 25 mM exogenous methionine was 1.8-fold greater in T. b. rhodesiense than T. b. brucei (2.1 vs 1.1 mM, respectively). In African trypanosomes as in their mammalian host, S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) is the major product of methionine metabolism. Accumulation of AdoMet was measured by HPLC analysis of cytosolic extracts incubated in the presence of increasing cytosolic methionine. In trypanosomes incubated for 10 min with saturating methionine, both organisms accumulated similar amounts of AdoMet (approximately 23 microM), but the level of trans-sulfuration products (cystathionine and cysteine) in T. b. rhodesiense was double that of T. b. brucei. Methionine incorporation during protein synthesis in T. b. brucei was 2.5 times that of T. b. rhodesiense. These results further confirm our belief that the major pathways of methionine utilization, for polyamine synthesis, protein transmethylation and the trans-sulfuration pathway, are excellent targets for chemotherapeutic intervention against African trypanosomes.

Expression of cardiac cytokines and inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice.

Expression of Cardiac Cytokines and Inducible Form of Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS2) in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected Mice. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology (1999) 31, 75-88. Both cardiac cytokine and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) expression have been implicated in the cardiac dysfunction associated with myocarditis and cardiomyopathy. Chagas' disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is an important cause of cardiomyopathy. We examined the effect of T. cruzi (Brazil strain) infection with or without verapamil treatment on the expression of cytokines and NOS2 in the heart. Messenger RNA for NOS2, IL-1beta, and TNF-alpha was induced in the myocardium of infected mice, and Western blot analysis as well as immunohistochemistry demonstrated a significant increase in NOS2 protein. Verapamil treatment reduced the expression of cardiac NOS2 protein and the mRNAs for NOS2, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta. Infection-associated increases in cardiac L-citrulline were also reduced by verapamil treatment. Verapamil-treated infected mice that survived for 80 days exhibited less inflammation and fibrosis compared to untreated mice. Gated MRI and echocardiography revealed an increased right ventricular inner diameter (RVID) in untreated but not in verapamil-treated infected CD1 mice. This suggests that the infection-associated expression of cytokines and NOS2 in the heart correlate with the severity of myocarditis and the effect of verapamil. The RVID was significantly increased in infected wild-type (WT) compared to infected syngeneic NOS2 knockout (NOS2-/-) mice. Fractional shortening was decreased and myocardial L-citrulline was increased in infected WT mice. These data suggest that NO generated from cardiac NOS2 may participate in the pathogenesis of murine chagasic heart disease.

Kinetics of S-adenosylmethionine cellular transport and protein methylation in Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

African trypanosomes of the Trypanosoma brucei group are agents of disease in man and animals. They present unique biochemical characteristics such as the need for preformed purines and have extensive salvage mechanisms for nucleoside recovery. In this regard we have shown that trypanosomes have a dedicated transporter for S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet), a key metabolite in transmethylation reactions and polyamine synthesis. In this study we compared the apparent kinetics of AdoMet transport, cytosolic AdoMet pool formation, and utilization of AdoMet in protein methylation reactions using two isolates: Trypanosoma brucei brucei, a veterinary parasite, and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, a human pathogen that is highly refractory and has greatly reduced susceptibility to standard trypanocidal agents active against T. b. brucei. The apparent Km values for [methyl-3H]AdoMet transport, derived by Hanes-Woolf analysis, for T. b. brucei was 4.2 and 10 mM for T. b. rhodesiense, and the Vmax values were 124 and 400 micromol/liter/min, respectively. Both strains formed substantial cytosolic pools of AdoMet, 1600 nmol/10(9) T. b. brucei and 3500 nmol/10(9) T. b. rhodesiense after 10 min incubation with 25 mM exogenous AdoMet. Data obtained from washed trichloroacetic acid precipitates of cells incubated with [methyl-3H]AdoMet indicated that the rate of protein methylation in T. b. brucei was fourfold greater than in T. b. rhodesiense. These results demonstrate that the unique rapid uptake and utilization of AdoMet by African trypanosomes is an important consideration in the design and development of new agents of potential use in chemotherapy.

Metabolic effects of a methylthioadenosine phosphorylase substrate analog on African trypanosomes.

The effects of 5'-deoxy-5'-(hydroxyethylthio)adenosine (HETA), a trypanocidal analog of 5'-deoxy-5'-(methylthio)adenosine (MTA), on polyamine synthesis and S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) metabolism were examined in bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei brucei. HETA was cleaved by trypanosome MTA phosphorylase at the same rate as the natural substrate, MTA, in a phosphate-dependent reaction. Fluorine substitution at the 2-position of the purine ring increased activity by approximately 50%, whereas substitution with an amino group reduced activity to about one-third of the control. HETA was accumulated by trypanosomes with internal concentrations of 100-250 microM and >800 microM after a 15-min incubation with 1 and 10 microM, respectively. Trypanosomes preincubated with HETA metabolized it at a rate of 21.9 nmol/hr/mg protein. Preincubation of cells with HETA at 1 or 10 microM inhibited spermidine synthesis from [3H]ornithine by 22-37%, and increased the cytosolic levels of AdoMet by 2- to 5-fold and that of MTA by up to 8-fold. S-Adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) levels also increased 1.5- to 7-fold in treated cells, whereas decarboxylated AdoMet decreased 65%. Preincubation of trypanosomes with HETA for 4 hr also reduced the incorporation of [35S]methionine in trichloroacetic acid-precipitable material by 50-60%, and reduced the methyl group incorporation into protein from [U-14C]methionine by 65-70%. Thus, HETA interferes with a series of biochemical events involving the participation of AdoMet and methionine in polyamine synthesis, protein synthesis, and transmethylation reactions.

Antitrypanosomal activity of a new triazine derivative, SIPI 1029, In vitro and in model infections.

A recently developed diaminotriazine derivative [O,O'-bis(1, 2-dihydro-2,2-tetramethylene-4,6-diamino-S-triazin-1-yl)-1, 6-hexanediol dihydrochloride; T-46; SIPI 1029] was examined for activity against African trypanosomes in in vitro and in vivo model systems. In vitro, SIPI 1029 was 50% inhibitory for growth of bloodstream trypomastigotes of four strains of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense at 0.15 to 2.15 nM (50% inhibitory concentrations). In in vivo mouse laboratory models of T. b. rhodesiense clinical isolate infections, SIPI 1029 was curative for 12 of 13 isolates at /=60% curative, and in six of these, a dose of /=60% cure rates. A number of these isolates were resistant to the standard trypanocide melarsoprol (Arsobal) and/or the diamidines diminazene aceturate (Berenil) and pentamidine. SIPI 1029 was also curative in combination with DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (Ornidyl) in a T. b. brucei central nervous system model infection. Some evidence of toxicity was found in dosage regimens of 10 mg/kg/day for 2 or 3 days in which deaths were observed in 6 of 65 animals given this dosage regimen. The activity of SIPI 1029 in this study indicates that this class of compounds (diaminotriazines) should be explored as leads for new human and veterinary trypanocides.

Effects of intermediates of methionine metabolism and nucleoside analogs on S-adenosylmethionine transport by Trypanosoma brucei brucei and a drug-resistant Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

The effects of purine nucleoside analogs, polyamines, and established trypanocidal agents on the uptake of [8-14C]adenosine and S-[methyl-3H]adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) by bloodform trypanosomes of drug-susceptible Trypanosoma brucei brucei and a drug-resistant Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense clinical isolate were compared. AdoMet uptake was not antagonized by omithine or methionine (500 microM), adenosine (100 microM), or other purine nucleosides, including methylthioadenosine (MTA) at 500 microM. Hydroxyethylthioadenosine (HETA), a trypanocidal analog of methylthioadenosine, and sinefungin, an analog of AdoMet, were competitive with AdoMet transport in both isolates. Dipyridamole, an antagonist of the adenosine P2 transporter, also competed with AdoMet transport in both isolates. The trypanocidal diamidines pentamidine, Berenil, CGP 40215, and the decarboxylated S-adenosylmethionine (dAdoMet) analog MDL 73811 (5'-¿[(Z)-4-amino-2-butenyl]¿methyl-amino¿-5'-deoxyadenosine) competed with P2 adenosine transport but did not inhibit AdoMet transport at 100 microM. Methylglyoxalbis(guanylhydrazone) (MGBG), an analog of dAdoMet, was a strong competitive inhibitor of adenosine transport at 100 microM, but did not inhibit AdoMet transport. The polyamines putrescine, spermine, and spermidine (1 mM) were examined for competition with adenosine and AdoMet transport. Putrescine significantly inhibited P2 adenosine transport in both strains (in the presence of saturating inosine), but AdoMet transport was not affected by these polyamines. P2 adenosine transport in both strains was highly inhibited by melarsen oxide and melamine, its key organic component, whereas AdoMet uptake was not affected by these agents. These findings further characterize distinguishing features of the unique AdoMet transporter in African trypanosomes, and indicate that the P2 adenosine transporter remains functional in melarsen- and diamidine-resistant clinical isolates.

The importance of the 4'-hydroxyl hydrogen for the anti-trypanosomal and antiviral properties of (+)-5'-noraristeromycin and two 7-deaza analogues.

(+)-5'-Noraristeromycin (1) has shown significant antiviral activity while its 7-deaza analogue 2 is an antitrypanosomal candidate. To determine the relevance of the 4'-hydroxyl hydrogen in these activities, a derivative of 1 (that is, 3) where the C-4' hydroxyl hydrogen has been replaced by a methyl group has been prepared beginning with palladium (0) mediated coupling of the sodium salt of N6-benzoyladenine (9) and (1S,4R)-4-methoxy-2-cyclopenten-1-yl acetate (5). The synthesis of compound 5 is described from (1S,4R)-1-[(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)oxy]-4-hydroxycyclopent-2-ene (6) in three steps. Analogous preparations of the 7-deaza and 8-aza-7-deaza derivatives of 3 related to 2 (that is, 4 and 12) are also reported. The new derivatives (3, 4, and 12) failed to show improved antiviral activity. Compound 12 was the only derivative with some anti-trypanosomal activity, giving 40% inhibition of growth at 100 microM against bloodstream forms of a Typanosoma brucei brucei isolate in a standard in vitro screen. This study indicated that the C-4'-hydroxyl hydrogen plays a role in the medicinal properties of 1 and 2.

In vivo efficacies of 5'-methylthioadenosine analogs as trypanocides.

5'-Deoxy-5'-(methylthio)adenosine (MTA), a key by-product of polyamine biosynthesis, is cleaved by MTA phosphorylase and is salvaged as adenine and, through conversion of the ribose moiety, methionine. An analog of MTA, 5'-deoxy-5'-(hydroxyethylthio)adenosine (HETA), is a substrate for trypanosome MTA phosphorylase and is active in vitro and in vivo against Trypanosoma brucei brucei, an agent of bovine trypanosomiasis. In this study, HETA and three O-acylated HETA derivatives were examined for their activities against model infections of T. b. brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the agent of East African sleeping sickness. HETA was curative (>60%) for infections caused by 5 of 11 clinical isolates of T. b. rhodesiense when it was given to mice at 200 mg/kg of body weight for 7 days as a continuous infusion in osmotic pumps. HETA at 150 to 200 mg/kg also extended the life spans of the mice infected with four additional isolates two- to fivefold. Di- and tri-O-acetylated derivatives of HETA also proved curative for the infections, while a tri-O-propionyl derivative, although also curative, was not as effective. This study indicates that substrate analogs of MTA should be given important consideration for development as novel chemotherapies against African trypanosomiasis.

Synthesis and antitrypanosomal activities of a series of 7-deaza-5'-noraristeromycin derivatives with variations in the cyclopentyl ring substituents.

Previous work in our laboratories has suggested that (+)-5'-nor-7-deazaaristeromycin (compound 1) may represent a prototype structure for a series of compounds with significant antitrypanosomal activities. To test this possibility, a series of derivatives of compound 1 with changes in the cyclopentyl substituents (compounds 3 to 10) have been studied. Although some growth activity was obtained with the L-like compound 5, related compounds 3 and 7 had little or no activity below 100 microM. D-like compounds 4 and 6 showed some activity at or below 100 microM, but the most interesting finding was that both the D- and L-like compounds having a methyl substituent on the 4' position were most active.

Rapid methylation of cell proteins and lipids in Trypanosoma brucei.

The fate of the [methyl-14C] group of S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) in bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei brucei, was studied. Trypanosomes were incubated with either [methyl-14C]methionine, [U-14C]methionine, S-[methyl-14C]AdoMet or [33S]methionine and incorporation into the total TCA precipitable fractions was followed. Incorporation of label into protein through methylation was estimated by comparing molar incorporation of [methyl-14C] and [U-14C]methionine to [35S]methionine. After 4-h incubation with [U-14C]methionine, [methyl-14C]methionine or [35S]methionine, cells incorporated label at mean rates of 2,880 pmol, 1,305 pmol and 296 pmol per mg total cellular protein, respectively. Cells incubated with [U-14C] or [methyl-14C]methionine in the presence of cycloheximide (50 micrograms/ml) for four hours incorporated label eight- and twofold more rapidly, respectively, than cells incubated with [35S]methionine and cycloheximide. [Methyl-14C] and [U-14C]methionine incorporation were > 85% decreased by co-incubation with unlabeled AdoMet (1 mM). The level of protein methylation remaining after 4-h treatment with cycloheximide was also inhibited with unlabeled AdoMet. The acid precipitable label from [U-14C]methionine incorporation was not appreciably hydrolyzed by DNAse or RNAse treatment but was 95% solubilized by proteinase K. [U-14C]methionine incorporated into the TCA precipitable fraction was susceptible to alkaline borate treatment, indicating that much of this label (55%) was incorporated as carboxymethyl groups. The rate of total lipid methylation was found to be 1.5 times that of protein methylation by incubating cells with [U-14C]methionine for six hours and differential extraction of the TCA lysate. These studies show T. b. brucei maintains rapid lipid and protein methylation, confirming previous studies demonstrating rapid conversion of methionine to AdoMet and subsequent production of post-methylation products of AdoMet in African trypanosomes.