Antimicrobial Activity of Three Italian Strains of Morchella esculenta (Ascomycota).

Three genetically identified and morphologically characterized strains (MesAQ2-C, MesAQ6-2 and MesFI2-3) of the culinary-medicinal ascomycete mushroom Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. collected in central-north Italy have been studied for their antifungal and antibacterial activities. The obtained data showed that mycelium of M. esculenta possess variable antimicrobial activity against four test fungi (Chrysosporium keratinophilum, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton terrestre, Penicillium griseofulvum), as well as one Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and three Gram negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) test bacteria potentially pathogenic for humans and animals. Up to 20.4% of inhibition of the average mycelial growth rate (GRavr) of test fungi in dual culture experiment was detected. The samples of cultural liquid (CL) and mycelial extract (ME) obtained by static cultivation of M. esculenta strains showed up to 13.9 and 23.0% of GRavr inhibition of test fungi, respectively. Similarly, the inhibition of the bacterial colonies by CL and ME samples was 34.1 and 32.3%, respectively in comparison with the control with streptomycin indicating almost equal secretion of both intra- and extracellular antimicrobial compounds by M. esculenta mycelium. As a producer of antimicrobial compounds among tested M. esculenta strains, MesAQ2-C was the most effective. It may be considered for further myco-pharmacological research to develop mushroom-based antimicrobial biotech products with biomedical significance.

Sterols Content of Fruiting Bodies of Medicinal Artist's Bracket Mushroom Ganoderma applanatum (Agaricomycetes) Collected in Armenia.

The qualitative analysis of hexane extracts obtained from different trama layers (WT, T1-T4) of dried fruiting bodies of medicinal bracket fungus Ganoderma applanatum collected in the Tavoush region of North-East Armenia was performed by GC-MS analysis. Three sterols [(7.22-ergostadienon, ergosterol and ergosta-14.22-diene-3-ol (3ß, 5α, 22E)] have been identified. The results have shown that the content and ratio of sterols differ in analyzed trama samples. The highest amount of sterols was detected in middle parts of T2 and T3 layers, while content of sterols gradually decreased to the upper cortical (T4) and lower hymenial (T1) layers. The chromatographic profiles of identified compounds indicate that different sterols dominated in each layer: 7.22-ergostadienon in T4, ergosterol in T3, T2, and T1. The average weight loss of analyzed trama samples during six days of drying was about 40 wt.% (37.0-43.49 wt.%) of the total weight of basidiome, which decreased up to 5 wt.% in the next two days. The complete extraction of sterols lasted six days. Its further prolongation leads to stationary phase without an increase in the amount of extracted sterols.

Medicinal Macrofungi as Cosmeceuticals: A Review.

Macrofungi (mushrooms) have been studied for their nutritional value and medicinal properties. However, progress in the biotechnological application of macrofungi in the cosmetic industry as cosmeceuticals and nutricosmetics remains slow. Currently, the cosmetic industry is in a constant search for valuable natural ingredients or extracts with relevant bioactive properties (e.g., antiaging, anticollagenase, antielastase, antihyaluronidase, antipigmentation, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antityrosinase) to design formulations. Edible medicinal mushrooms are an unlimited source of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. They can be used as a source of ingredients to develop organic cosmeceuticals, nutriceuticals, and nutracosmetics for topical and oral administration.

The Cardioprotective Properties of Agaricomycetes Mushrooms Growing in the Territory of Armenia: Review.

Several edible and medicinal Agaricomycetes mushrooms possess biologically active compounds with different therapeutic effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, anti-hypertensive, fibrinolytic, and thrombolytic, and have potential use as cardioprotective remedies. Previous studies have shown that mushrooms possessing cardioprotective effects (CPEs) contain a high amount of vitamins and minerals and low fat content, which make them applicable as a supplementary dietary and functional food for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. The current review evaluates the resource value of 31 edible and nonedible medicinal Agaricomycetes mushrooms with potential CPEs growing in the territory of Armenia and discusses the future perspectives of their usage in biotechnology and biomedicine.

Medicinal Coprinoid Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes) Distributed in Armenia (Review).

The coprinoid mushrooms or coprini are species of former genus Coprinus Pers. (Coprinaceae, Agaricomycetes) currently divided into four new genera: Coprinus, Coprinopsis, Coprinellus, and Parasola. The presented review addresses literature data and findings from our recent observations on bioactive compounds (sesquiterpenes, proteins, lectins, phenolics, polysaccharides, fatty acids, etc.) and enzymes (proteases) of 21 coprinoid species distributed in Armenia possessing medicinal properties (antitumor, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, mitogenic, antiprotozoal, hypoglycemic, and others) with potential biotechnological interest.

Notes on Medicinal Polypore Species from the Genus Daedaleopsis (Agaricomycetes), Distributed in the Asian Part of Russia.

We present a study on the medicinal value, taxonomy, and ecology of the polypore mushrooms Daedaleopsis confragosa and D. tricolor isolated from the Asian part of Russia (the Urals, Siberia, and the Far East). The phylogenetic analysis of recombinant DNA internal transcribed spacer sequences data has shown that D. confragosa and D. tricolor do not differ taxonomically and should be considered as one species. However, because D. confragosa and D. tricolor differ significantly in their ecological characteristics, they may be considered as two morpho-ecological varieties: D. confragosa var. confragosa and D. confragosa var. tricolor (both nomen provisiorum).

Pharmacological Properties and Resource Value of Hymenochaetoid Fungi (Agaricomycetes) Distributed in Armenia: Review.

The systematic study of aphyllophoroid, including hymenochaetoid, fungi in Armenia revealed around 200 species, forms, and varieties among which around 40 species possess medicinal properties. The modern taxonomic analysis and nomenclature verification of mycobiota of macromycetes are required for assessment of the resource value of Armenian medicinal mushrooms. According to Index Fungorum the hymenochaetoid fungi (order Hymenochaetales) is currently represented by 27 species, 14 genera, and 3 families. Among them, Phellinus tremulae has originally been reported for Armenian mycobiota; 12 species possess pharmacological properties. The current review addresses the biodiversity, resource value, bioactive and pharmacological properties, as well as perspectives for further biotechnological exploitation of hymenochaetoid fungi in Armenia.

Analysis of Intraspecies Genetic Variability among Collections of Medicinal Red Belt Conk Mushroom, Fomitopsis pinicola (Agaricomycetes).

Intraspecies genetic variability of the medicinal dikaryotic polypore mushroom Fomitopsis pinicola was analyzed by using variable internal transcribed space (ITS) region of the ribosomal DNA gene cluster and the somatic compatibility test. The results revealed very low ITS sequence polymorphism among strains of F. pinicola from geographically distant origins (Russia, Finland, and France). Because of its conserved structure, the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA cluster can be proposed as a reliable molecular code for identifying and taxonomically verifying F. pinicola sensu stricto species. Four types of somatic incompatibility interactions were found in the Moscow population; 29 dikaryotic isolates revealed 27 somatically incompatible groups with an overall diversity index (HVC) of 0.782. Moderate antagonistic (somatically incompatible) interactions were predominant, with a frequency (p) of 0.56; strong antagonism with the heavily pigmented interaction zone was estimated as p = 0.35. These findings regarding the genetic diversity of natural F. pinicola isolates will assist further research and development of novel strains useful in food, medicine, and industrial applications.

Medicinal, Nutritional, and Cosmetic Values of Macrofungi Distributed in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran (Review).

A total of 82 species and 2 variations of medicinal and edible macrofungi (Basidiomycota and Ascomy-cota) have been collected and identified in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran. Among these species, 58 possess medicinal and culinary properties, whereas 21 possess only medicinal properties (antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, an-timutagenic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiplatelet, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, neurotropic, hypotensive, insec-ticidal, immunomodulating, mitogenic/regenerative, spasmolytic, etc.). No medicinal effect has yet been reported for 4 species (Cantharellus infundibuliformis, Mycena inclinata, Suillus collinitus, Xerocomus porosporus) and 2 variations (Pluteus cervinus var. albus, Russula cyanoxantha var. variata) of edible species. Among the listed species, 15 (such as Auricularia auricula-judae, Hericium erinaceus, Fomes fomentarius, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma lucidum, Lyophyllum decastes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Tremella mesenterica) are currently used for manufacturing organic cosmetic products. The well-known mushrooms with medicinal properties (e.g., Auricularia auricula-judae, Flammulina velutipes, Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, G. tsugae, G. adspersum, Trametes versicolor) and excellent edibility (e.g., Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, Morchella esculenta, Pleurotus ostreatus) are widely distributed in the studied area. The biological resources of macrofungi growing in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran possess medicinal, nutritional, and cosmetic values and could be further used for biotechnological exploitation to develop mushroom-derived pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmeceuticals.

Morphological Characteristics of Monokaryotic and Dikaryotic Collections of Three Medicinal Coprinellus Species (Agaricomycetes).

This article presents data from morphological observations of mycelia of 40 monokaryotic and 11 dikaryotic collections of 3 medicinal Coprinellus species (C. disseminatus, C. micaceus, and C. xanthothrix). The growth rate, colony morphology, and micromorphological characteristics of mycelia and anamorphs on 1.5% malt-extract agar (MEA) and potato-dextrose agar (PDA) are described. Well-developed white, cottony-felt colonies, which later show creamy, yellowish to rusty brown pigmentation on mycelia and agar, were typical for the studied Coprinellus collections. Mycelial growth was denser on PDA than on MEA, whereas the average growth rate indicators (GRavr) were higher in dikaryotic isolates on MEA. Clamp connections were described only in dikaryotic isolates of C. disseminatus and C. micaceus; mycelia of C. xanthothrix had no clamps. Nonsporulating Ozonium-type anamorphic mycelia (with a rusty brown septate and parallel hyphal strands), a taxonomic feature characteristic of the clade Coprinellus, was present in the studied monokaryotic and dikaryotic collections, whereas Hormographiella-type sporulating anamorphs developed only in monokaryotic and dikaryotic isolates of C. xanthothrix. Yellowish-rusty-brownish regular hyphal loops were also observed in the collections of all 3 Coprinellus species. Allocyst-like hyphal swellings were observed in monokaryons of C. xanthothrix, and hyphocystidia were observed in dikaryons of C. micaceus. Hyphal loops and hyphal cystidia presumably were derived from Ozonium mycelia. Thick-walled, oval chlamydospores and chlamydospore-like swellings were described only in dikaryons of C. xanthothrix. Under these experimental conditions, primordia and fruiting bodies developed in dikaryons of C. xanthothrix on MEA and PDA, respectively, and in dikaryons of C. micaceus on MEA. The taxonomic significance of the mycelial and anamorphic characteristics of studied Coprinellus species was evaluated. They could be useful for identifying mycelial cultures during biotechnological cultivation.

Genetic Variability of the Medicinal Tinder Bracket Polypore, Fomes fomentarius (Agaricomycetes), from the Asian Part of Russia.

We analyzed intraspecies genetic variability of the medicinal tinder bracket polypore, Fomes fomentarius, from the Asian part of Russia, including the Ural, Altai, Western Sayan, and Baikal regions. We used nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence data as a standard marker for fungal DNA barcoding. In the Asian part of Russia, lineage A occurs as sublineage A2, which differs from sublineage A1 by a single nucleotide insertion at ITS2.3. Sublineage A2 is distributed up to Lake Baikal in the Ural, Altai, and Western Sayan regions. It can be characterized as a Eurasian sublineage of F. fomentarius. Lineage B is also represented by 2 sublineages (B1 and B2), which differ from each other by nucleotide sequences at ITS2.1. Sublineage B1 is represented by a small group of isolates from Asia (Iran, China, Nepal, South Korea), whereas sublineage B2 mainly includes isolates from Europe (Great Britain, Italy, Latvia, Slovakia, Slovenia) and 2 separate samples from Asia (Iran, China); these locales compose the distribution area of F. fomentarius. In the Asian part of Russia, lineage B is represented by sublineage B2 found in the Southern Urals (at the border between Europe and Asia), which is the only area where sublineages A2 and B2 are present. These sublineages are characterized by different substrate spectra: sublineage A2 is predominantly associated with Betula spp. and rarely with Alnus and Larix trees, whereas sublineage B2 does not have a pronounced substrate preference and is found in basidiomes collected from Acer, Duschekia, Prunus, and Salix trees, but not Betula trees. In general, the spectrum of substrates for F. fomentarius lineages A and B in the Asian part of Russia corresponds to that in other parts of this polypore's distribution area. Data are needed on genetic intraspecies variability (polymorphism) in relation to pharmacological properties for further biotechnological cultivation and use of the medicinal fungus F. fomentarius.

Fatty Acid Composition of Different Collections of Coprinoid Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes) and Their Nutritional and Medicinal Values.

Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the free fatty acid (FA) composition of ethanol extracts obtained from mycelia of 30 genetically identified strains of 18 species of coprinoid mushrooms (CMs) or coprini belonging to clades Coprinellus (C. bisporus, C. curtus, C. disseminatus, C. domesticus, C. ellisii, C.flocculosus, C. micaceus, C. aff radians I, C. aff radians II, C. aff radians III, C. xanthothrix, Coprinellus sp. 4), Coprinopsis (C. cinerea, C. cothurnata, C. gonophylla, C. lagopides, C. maysoidispora, C. strossmayeri), and Coprinus (C. comatus) were evaluated using gas chromatography. Two unsaturated (lineolic, oleic) and 3 saturated (palmitic, stearic, myristic) FAs were detected in the tested mycelial samples. Amounts of unsaturated FAs prevailed over saturated FAs. Lineolic and palmitic acids were detected in all the species in high quantities (up to 64.73% and 53.82%, respectively). All 5 FAs were found in the Coprinus clade (family Agaricaceae) as opposed to the Coprinellus and Coprinopsis clades (family Psathyrellaceae). Based on the unsaturated and saturated FA content, the species from the clade Coprinellus were different from Coprinopsis species and C. comatus. The obtained data confirm that palmitic, linoleic, and stearic acids are predominant in mushrooms, including coprini. The presence of large amounts of unsaturated FAs in the tested coprini make them an option for further studies to formulate novel mushroom-based dietary supplements and nutriceuticals.

Diversity of Polypore Bracket Mushrooms, Polyporales (Agaricomycetes), Recorded in Armenia and Their Medicinal Properties.

The list of polypore bracket mushrooms (Polyporales) recorded in Armenia is presented. The order Polyporales in Armenia is currently represented by 87 species (4 varieties) belonging to 47 genera. Information regarding the study of the medicinal properties (e.g., antifungal, antibacterial, mitogenic, regenerative, antioxidant, proteolytic) of genetically identified mycelial collections of several polypore species-mainly from the genera Daedalea, Fomes, Fomitopsis, Ganoderma, Laetiporus, Piptoporus, Polyporus, and Trametes-is reported, as well.

Genetic resources and mycelial characteristics of several medicinal polypore mushrooms (Polyporales, Basidiomycetes).

Mycelial characteristics of dikaryotic collections of 6 medicinal polypore mushrooms (Fomes fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola, Ganoderma adspersum, G. applanatum, G. lucidum, and G. resinaceum) with different geographical origins (Armenia, China, France, Iran, Italy, and Russia) were screened. A total of 42 polypore collections were molecularly identified by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA genes' cluster, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Morphological characteristics of 37 cultures were observed on agar media (malt extract agar, potato dextrose agar) at different temperatures (25, 30, 35, and 38°C) at a pH of 6.0. Colony morphology, pigmentation of mycelium and agar, mycelial growth rate, in vitro teleomorph formation, and other macromorphological characteristics were thoroughly described and illustrated. Micromorphological features of mycelia, such as different hyphal structures, clamp cells, presence and type of asexual sporulation, chlamydospores, and others were observed. The taxonomic significance of the mycelial characteristics revealed was estimated. The obtained results will assist further biotechnological cultivation of medicinal polypore mushrooms to develop novel health care biotechnological products.