Food capture and escape behavior of Leposternon microcephalum Wagler, 1824 (Squamata: Amphisbaenia)

Abstract Amphisbaenians are fossorial reptiles that have a cylindrical and elongated body covered with scales arranged in rings, and are all apodal, except for the three species of the genus Bipes. The amphisbaenian diet consists of a variety of invertebrates and small vertebrates. As these animals live underground, many aspects of their natural history are difficult to study. Most feeding studies of amphisbaenians have focused on the composition of the diet and feeding ecology, and the data available on feeding behavior are based on precursory observations. The present study describes the food capture behavior of Leposternon microcephalum Wagler, 1824 in captivity. In this experiment we used non-live bait (moist cat food), which was placed near a burrow opening, on the surface of the substrate. Three animals were monitored visually and filmed using cellphone cameras deployed at fixed points, to capture images from the dorsal and lateral perspectives of the study subjects. Two principal types of behavior were observed: the capture of food and defense mechanisms. The strategies used to capture the food were similar to those observed in other fossorial species. Although the backward movement has already been observed and described, we were able to record this movement being used as an escape strategy. These findings enrich our knowledge on different aspects of the natural history of the amphisbaenians.

Resumo Anfisbênas são répteis fossoriais caracterizadas por apresentarem corpo cilíndrico e alongado coberto por escamas dispostas exclusivamente em anéis e todas são ápodas, com exceção das três espécies do gênero Bipes. Sua dieta consiste em uma variedade de invertebrados e pequenos vertebrados. Por viverem no subsolo, muitos aspectos de sua história natural são difíceis de observar. A maioria dos estudos sobre alimentação em anfisbenas concentra-se na dieta e na ecologia alimentar, enquanto as informações sobre o comportamento alimentar se baseiam em observações preliminares. O objetivo deste artigo foi descrever o comportamento de captura de alimentos exibido por Leposternon microcephalum Wagler, 1824, fora da galeria, em cativeiro. Para o experimento foi utilizada uma isca não viva, ração úmida de gato, que foi oferecida e posicionada próxima a uma das aberturas da galeria, na superfície do solo. Um total de três animais foi analisadopor meio de observações visuais e registros de câmeras de telefones celulares posicionadas em um ponto fixo, captando imagens de suas vistas dorsal e lateral. Foram detectados dois tipos principais de comportamento: captura de recursos alimentares e mecanismo de defesa. As estratégias utilizadas para capturar o recurso alimentar foram semelhantes às observadas em outras espécies fossoriais. Embora o movimento de marcha-à-ré tenha sido observado e descrito, o registramos sendo usado como uma estratégia de fuga. Esses resultados contribuem para enriquecer o conhecimento sobre diferentes aspectos da história natural dos Amphisbaenia.

Food capture and escape behavior of Leposternon microcephalum Wagler, 1824 (Squamata: Amphisbaenia).

Amphisbaenians are fossorial reptiles that have a cylindrical and elongated body covered with scales arranged in rings, and are all apodal, except for the three species of the genus Bipes. The amphisbaenian diet consists of a variety of invertebrates and small vertebrates. As these animals live underground, many aspects of their natural history are difficult to study. Most feeding studies of amphisbaenians have focused on the composition of the diet and feeding ecology, and the data available on feeding behavior are based on precursory observations. The present study describes the food capture behavior of Leposternon microcephalum Wagler, 1824 in captivity. In this experiment we used non-live bait (moist cat food), which was placed near a burrow opening, on the surface of the substrate. Three animals were monitored visually and filmed using cellphone cameras deployed at fixed points, to capture images from the dorsal and lateral perspectives of the study subjects. Two principal types of behavior were observed: the capture of food and defense mechanisms. The strategies used to capture the food were similar to those observed in other fossorial species. Although the backward movement has already been observed and described, we were able to record this movement being used as an escape strategy. These findings enrich our knowledge on different aspects of the natural history of the amphisbaenians.

Immobilization of Lipases on Heterofunctional Octyl-Glyoxyl Agarose Supports: Improved Stability and Prevention of the Enzyme Desorption.

Lipases are among the most widely used enzymes in industry. Here, a novel method is described to rationally design the support matrix to retain the enzyme on the support matrix without leaching and also activate the enzyme for full activity retention. Lipases are interesting biocatalysts because they show the so-called interfacial activation, a mechanism of action that has been used to immobilize lipases on hydrophobic supports such as octyl-agarose. Thus, adsorption of lipases on hydrophobic surfaces is very useful for one step purification, immobilization, hyperactivation, and stabilization of most lipases. However, lipase molecules may be released from the support under certain conditions (high temperature, organic solvents), as there are no covalent links between the enzyme and the support matrix. A heterofunctional support has been proposed in this study to overcome this problem, such as the heterofunctional glyoxyl-octyl agarose beads. It couples the numerous advantages of the octyl-agarose support to covalent immobilization and creates the possibility of using the biocatalyst under any experimental conditions without risk of enzyme desorption and leaching. This modified support may be easily prepared from the commercially available octyl-agarose. Preparation of this useful support and enzyme immobilization on it via covalent linking is described here. The conditions are described to increase the possibility of achieving at least one covalent attachment between each enzyme molecule and the support matrix.

Underwater turning movement during foraging in Hydromedusa maximiliani (Testudines, Chelidae) from southeastern Brazil / Movimento de giro subaquático durante o forrageio em Hydromedusa maximiliani (Testudines, Chelidae) do Sudeste do Brasil

A type of locomotor behavior observed in animals with rigid bodies, that can be found in many animals with exoskeletons, shells, or other forms of body armor, to change direction, is the turning behavior. Aquatic floated-turning behavior among rigid bodies animals have been studied in whirligig beetles, boxfish, and more recently in freshwater turtle, Chrysemys picta. In the laboratory we observed a different kind of turning movement that consists in an underwater turning movement during foraging, wherein the animal pivoted its body, using one of the hindlimbs as the fixed-point support in the substratum. We describe, analyze and quantify this movement during foraging in Hydromedusa maximiliani, using observations made in the laboratory. We studied 3 adult specimens (2 males, 1 female) and 2 non-sexed juveniles of H. maximiliani. They were kept individually in an aquarium filled with water and small fish. They were filmed, in dorsal view, at 30 frames per second. Sequences were analyzed frame by frame and points were marked on limbs and shell to enable analysis of variation in limb flexion and extension, as well as rotation movements. While foraging, turtles frequently turned their bodies, using one hind leg as the pivot point. This underwater turning movement, in addition to slow movements with the neck stretched, or staying nearly immobile and scanning the surroundings with lateral movements of the neck (in arcs up to 180°), and fast attacks of neck, may increase prey capture rates.

Um tipo de comportamento locomotor observado em animais com corpo rígido, que pode ser encontrado em muitos animais com exoesqueleto, conchas, ou outras formas de armaduras, para mudar de direção, é o girar o corpo num plano horizontal (Turning performance). O movimento de girar o corpo flutuando na água (Aquatic floated-turning performance) entre animais de corpo rígido tem sido estudado em besouros, peixe-caixa, e mais recente na tartaruga de água doce, Chrysemys picta. No laboratório nós observamos um tipo diferente de giro que consiste em um giro subaquático, não flutuando na água, durante o forrageio, onde o animal pivota seu corpo, usando uma das patas traseiras como um ponto fixo de suporte no substrato. Nós descrevemos, analisamos e quantificamos esse movimento durante o forrageio de Hydromedusa maximiliani, usando observações feitas em laboratório. Nós analisamos três adultos (2 machos, 1 fêmea) e dois juvenis não sexados. Eles foram mantidos individualmente em um aquário preenchido água e pequenos peixes. Eles foram filmados, em vista dorsal, a 30 imagens por segundo. As sequencias foram analisadas quadro a quadro, e pontos foram marcados nos membros e no casco para permitir analisar variações angulares durante a flexão e extensão, bem como movimentos de rotação. Os membros fizeram movimentos sequencias durante o movimento de giro, mantendo sempre um dos membros posteriores como ponto fixo. Esta estratégia de forrageio associada com movimentos lentos e pescoço esticado, ou permanecer praticamente imóveis apenas observando o ambiente através de movimentos laterais do pescoço, descrevendo trajetórias em um ângulo de 180°, e ataques rápidos com o pescoço, talvez aumente seu potencial na captura de presas.

Underwater turning movement during foraging in Hydromedusa maximiliani (Testudines, Chelidae) from southeastern Brazil.

A type of locomotor behavior observed in animals with rigid bodies, that can be found in many animals with exoskeletons, shells, or other forms of body armor, to change direction, is the turning behavior. Aquatic floated-turning behavior among rigid bodies animals have been studied in whirligig beetles, boxfish, and more recently in freshwater turtle, Chrysemys picta. In the laboratory we observed a different kind of turning movement that consists in an underwater turning movement during foraging, wherein the animal pivoted its body, using one of the hindlimbs as the fixed-point support in the substratum. We describe, analyze and quantify this movement during foraging in Hydromedusa maximiliani, using observations made in the laboratory. We studied 3 adult specimens (2 males, 1 female) and 2 non-sexed juveniles of H. maximiliani. They were kept individually in an aquarium filled with water and small fish. They were filmed, in dorsal view, at 30 frames per second. Sequences were analyzed frame by frame and points were marked on limbs and shell to enable analysis of variation in limb flexion and extension, as well as rotation movements. While foraging, turtles frequently turned their bodies, using one hind leg as the pivot point. This underwater turning movement, in addition to slow movements with the neck stretched, or staying nearly immobile and scanning the surroundings with lateral movements of the neck (in arcs up to 180°), and fast attacks of neck, may increase prey capture rates.

Penial morphology in three species of Brazilian tuco-tucos, Ctenomys torquatus, C. minutus, and C. flamarioni (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae).

The present study analyses the glans penis and baculum morphology of three Brazilian tuco-tucos, Ctenomys torquatus Lichtenstein, 1830, Ctenomys minutus Nehring, 1887 and Ctenomys flamarioni Travi, 1981, in order to identify possible variations and understand some more about this taxonomically complex group. We used fixed penis from 15 previously listed adult specimens. For a more detailed baculum analysis, the penis underwent dissection and diaphanisation, whereas to analyse the glans penis surface we used Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Results showed striking differences in baculum morphology among the three species. While C. minutus have a particular V-shaped proximal baculum tip, C. flamarioni baculum is thin throughout the shaft with rounded proximal and distal tips. Ctenomys torquatus have a shorter and larger baculum, similar to what has previously been described for the species. Glans penis surface microstructure analyses also revealed inter-specific differences, with penial spines varying in shape, size and, especially density. Although C. torquatus has a relatively small penis, it has the largest penial spine density, which suggests a more complex penial ornamentation in this species.

Penial morphology in three species of Brazilian Tuco-tucos, Ctenomys torquatus, C. minutus, and C. flamarioni (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae) / Morfologia peniana de três espécies de tuco-tuco do Brasil - Ctenomys torquatus, C. minutus e C. flamarioni (Rodentia: Ctenomyidae)

The present study analyses the glans penis and baculum morphology of three Brazilian tuco-tucos, Ctenomys torquatus Lichtenstein, 1830, Ctenomys minutus Nehring, 1887 and Ctenomys flamarioni Travi, 1981, in order to identify possible variations and understand some more about this taxonomically complex group. We used fixed penis from 15 previously listed adult specimens. For a more detailed baculum analysis, the penis underwent dissection and diaphanisation, whereas to analyse the glans penis surface we used Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Results showed striking differences in baculum morphology among the three species. While C. minutus have a particular V-shaped proximal baculum tip, C. flamarioni baculum is thin throughout the shaft with rounded proximal and distal tips. Ctenomys torquatus have a shorter and larger baculum, similar to what has previously been described for the species. Glans penis surface microstructure analyses also revealed inter-specific differences, with penial spines varying in shape, size and, especially density. Although C. torquatus has a relatively small penis, it has the largest penial spine density, which suggests a more complex penial ornamentation in this species.

O presente estudo analisa a morfologia do glans penis e do baculum de três tuco-tucos do Brazil - Ctenomys torquatus Lichtenstein, 1830, Ctenomys minutus Nehring, 1887, e Ctenomys flamarioni Travi, 1981 - com a finalidade de identificar possíveis variações e elucidar mais sobre grupo taxonômico complexo. Foram usados pênis fixados de 15 indivíduos adultos das espécies listadas anteriormente. Para uma análise mais detalhada do baculum, o pênis foi submetido a dissecções e diafanização, enquanto que, para a análise da superfície do glans penis, foi usada a técnica de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Os resultados exibiram significativas diferenças na morfologia do baculum entre as três espécies. Enquanto C. minutus apresenta um baculum com uma ponta em forma de V característica, o baculum de C. flamarioni é fino ao longo do osso, com as pontas proximal e distal arredondadas. Ctenomys torquatus apresenta um baculum mais curto e largo, similar ao descrito anteriormente para a espécie. Análises da microestrutura na superfície do glans penis revelaram diferenças interespecíficas, com os espinhos penianos variando em forma, tamanho e, especialmente, densidade. Apesar de C. torquatus ter um pênis relativamente pequeno, apresenta a maior densidade de espinhos penianos, o que sugere uma complexa ornamentação peniana nesta espécie.

[Results of the treatment of high energy tibial pylon fractures]. / Resultados del tratamiento de las fracturas del pilón tibial por alta energía.

BACKGROUND: Several treatment are available for these injuries. In developed countries they are currently treated with minimally invasive plates. This paper describes the results obtained using external fixators in patients with tibial pylon fractures. METHODS: A retrospective, cross-sectional study was conducted from 1999 to 2009 at Querétaro General Hospital. A total of 39 patients were operated on; 18 met the inclusion criteria; follow-up ranged from 1 to 9 years. RESULTS: Of the 18 patients enrolled, 22% were females and 78% males. The most frequent fracture was 43 A2 of the AO classification accounting for 67%. Mean age was 41.2 years +/- 9.3, mean healing time was 14.9 weeks +/- 7.26, with p = 0.005; mean follow-up was 4.1 +/- 4.9 years. Twenty-two percent were Gustilo type II open fractures; 78.2% required open reduction plus an external fixator; 22.8% underwent closed reduction plus external fixator; the mean score in the SF-36 scale was 78.05 +/- 14.76. Only one patient required another surgery; 94.4% returned to their usual daily activities. Among the latter, 77.7% had normal gait, 22.2% had full range of motion, 72.2% had a pain score of four in the VAS and 27.7% were pain free. CONCLUSIONS: The use of external fixators for the definitive management of these fractures is effective, as it helps avoid additional surgeries (up to 35%) and has a shorter healing time.

Impacto del estrés oxidativo sobre las lesiones cutáneas causadas por radiaciones ionizantes / Impact of the oxidative stress on cutaneous lesions caused by ionizing radiations

Los efectos inducidos por exposición de manera accidental o terapéutica a dosis de radiaciones ionizantes inducen varios eventos celulares que afectan el proceso de cicatrización de la piel, y tiene gran impacto en la prognosis y supervivencia de individuos afectados. La información existente sobre los efectos nocivos por altas exposiciones a radiaciones proviene a partir de los accidentes ocurridos por las bombas atómicas en Hiroshima y Nagasaki produciendo problemas de salud por leucemias y linfomas en los sobrevivientes. El síndrome de radiación aguda (SRA) generalmente inicia durante las dos horas inmediatas posteriores a la exposición, y la severidad de las lesiones depende de la dosis y del tiempo de exposición. El desarrollo de las lesiones por el daño como efectos tardíos a exposiciones por radiaciones es más complejo y determina no únicamente el daño al parénquima celular sino también se presentan daños en el tejido vascular y en otros tejidos de soporte. Al menos parcialmente estos eventos se presentan a consecuencia del estrés oxidativo generado por el excesivo incremento de especies reactivas del oxígeno (EROs). Se han estado estudiando componentes comerciales como blancos potenciales para la prevención de los daños causados por radiaciones en piel que tienen una amplia actividad contra múltiples citocinas involucradas en los procesos de la lesión cutánea y por otro lado se están estudiando fármacos que reaccionan con los radicales libres o indirectamente inhiben la expresión de las enzimas que generan la producción de EROs o bien aumentan la expresión de enzimas antioxidantes intracelulares

Geometry and evolutionary parallelism in the long bones of cavioid rodents and small artiodactyls.

Morphological parallelism between South American cavioid rodents and small artiodactyls from the Old World has been postulated for a long time. Our study deals with this question from the point of view of biomechanical characteristics of the long bones. For this, cross-sectional area, second moment of the area, polar moment, athletic ability indicators and strength were calculated for the long bones (i.e. humerus, radius, femur and tibia) of five species of cavioids and two species of artiodactyls. Regressions of all these variables to body mass were established. Regarding the cross-sectional area, the confidence intervals show that the exponents calculated are not significantly different from the geometrical predicted value. The exponents obtained for the second moment of area and the polar moment are not significantly different from the geometrical prediction, except for the humerus. The two indicators of athletic ability scaled as expected, but the bending indicator of athletic ability of the femur was not correlated to body mass. The exponent calculated for femur strength is not different from zero, while the strength of the humerus decreases slightly with the body mass. Additional statistical tests (ANCOVAs) showed no difference between the values of these variables calculated for the samples studied of artiodactyls and rodents. The present results are consistent with the hypothesis that there is significant evolutionary parallelism between cavioid rodents and small artiodactyls.

Analysis of the microstructure of Xenodontinae snake scales associated with different habitat occupation strategies.

The morphology of many organisms seems to be related to the environment they live in. Nonetheless, many snakes are so similar in their morphological patterns that it becomes quite difficult to distinguish any adaptive divergence that may exist. Many authors suggest that the microornamentations on the scales of reptiles have important functional value. Here, we examined variations on the micromorphology of the exposed oberhautchen surface of dorsal, lateral, and ventral scales from the mid-body region of Xenodontinae snakes: Sibynomorphus mikani (terricolous), Imantodes cenchoa (arboreal), Helicops modestus (aquatic) and Atractus pantostictus (fossorial). They were metallized and analyzed through scanning electron microscopy. All species displayed similar microstructures, such as small pits and spinules, which are often directed to the scale caudal region. On the other hand, there were some singular differences in scale shape and in the microstructural pattern of each species. S. mikani and I. cenchoa have larger spinules arranged in a row which overlap the following layers on the scale surface. Species with large serrate borders are expected to have more frictional resistance from the caudal-cranial direction. This can favor life in environments which require more friction, facilitating locomotion. In H. modestus, the spinules are smaller and farther away from the posterior rows, which should help reduce water resistance during swimming. The shallower small pits found in this species can retain impermeable substances, as in aquatic Colubridae snakes. The spinules adhering to the caudal scales of A. pantostictus seem to form a more regular surface, which probably aid their fossorial locomotion, reducing scale-ground friction. Our data appear to support the importance of functional microstructure, contributing to the idea of snake species adaptation to their preferential microhabitats.

Analysis of the microstructure of Xenodontinae snake scales associated with different habitat occupation strategies / Análise da microestrutura de escamas de serpentes Xenodontinae em associação à ocupação de diferentes microhabitats

The morphology of many organisms seems to be related to the environment they live in. Nonetheless, many snakes are so similar in their morphological patterns that it becomes quite difficult to distinguish any adaptive divergence that may exist. Many authors suggest that the microornamentations on the scales of reptiles have important functional value. Here, we examined variations on the micromorphology of the exposed oberhautchen surface of dorsal, lateral, and ventral scales from the mid-body region of Xenodontinae snakes: Sibynomorphus mikani (terricolous), Imantodes cenchoa (arboreal), Helicops modestus (aquatic) and Atractus pantostictus (fossorial). They were metallized and analyzed through scanning electron microscopy. All species displayed similar microstructures, such as small pits and spinules, which are often directed to the scale caudal region. On the other hand, there were some singular differences in scale shape and in the microstructural pattern of each species. S. mikani and I. cenchoa have larger spinules arranged in a row which overlap the following layers on the scale surface. Species with large serrate borders are expected to have more frictional resistance from the caudal-cranial direction. This can favor life in environments which require more friction, facilitating locomotion. In H. modestus, the spinules are smaller and farther away from the posterior rows, which should help reduce water resistance during swimming. The shallower small pits found in this species can retain impermeable substances, as in aquatic Colubridae snakes. The spinules adhering to the caudal scales of A. pantostictus seem to form a more regular surface, which probably aid their fossorial locomotion, reducing scale-ground friction. Our data appear to support the importance of functional microstructure, contributing to the idea of snake species adaptation to their preferential microhabitats.

A morfologia de muitos organismos parece estar relacionada ao ambiente em que eles vivem. No entanto, muitas serpentes são tão similares nos seus padrões morfológicos que se torna difícil distinguir qualquer divergência adaptativa existente. Muitos autores sugerem que as micro-ornamentações nas escamas de répteis possuem importante valor funcional. Neste trabalho, examinamos variações na micromorfologia da superfície oberhautchen exposta das escamas ventrais, laterais e dorsais da região medial de serpentes Xenodontinae: Sibynomorphus mikani (terrestre), Imantodes cenchoa (arbórea), Helicops modestus (aquática) e Atractus pantostictus (fossorial). Estas foram metalizadas e analisadas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Todas as espécies apresentaram microestruturas similares, tais como microcovas e espículas, que estão normalmente orientadas para a região caudal da escama. Por outro lado, houve algumas diferenças singulares em relação ao formato da escama e padrão microestrutural de cada espécie. S. mikani e I. cenchoa possuem espículas grandes arrumadas em linhas que sobrepõem as camadas seguintes da superfície da escama. Em espécies que possuem longas denticulações sobrepostas sobre as bordas posteriores das células, é esperado que haja uma maior resistência friccional da direção posterior para anterior das escamas. Isso pode favorecer a vida em ambientes que precisam de maior atrito, facilitando a locomoção. Em H. modestus, as espículas são menores e mais afastadas das linhas posteriores, o que pode reduzir o atrito com a água durante a natação. As microcovas mais rasas encontradas nesta espécie podem reter substâncias impermeáveis, como nas serpentes Colubridae aquáticas. As espículas que aderem às escamas caudais de A. pantostictus parecem formar uma superfície mais regular, o que provavelmente auxilia na locomoção fossorial, reduzindo o atrito com o solo. Nossos dados parecem corroborar a importância da microestrutura funcional, ...

Widespread expression of inducible NOS and citrulline in lupus nephritis tissues.

OBJECTIVE: Examine the presence of functional inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in lupus nephritis lesions. METHODS: Seventeen kidney biopsies from patients with lupus nephritis and an equal number of normal control kidney biopsies were examined for the presence of iNOS and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and citrulline by using immunohistochemical methods. Additionally, iNOS and eNOS mRNAs were examined by reverse transcription -PCR amplification of total renal RNA. RESULTS: All biopsies expressed constitutive eNOS, but in contrast to normal kidney biopsies, 70% of the lupus biopsies also expressed iNOS mRNA and the cognate protein. Eight positive biopsies corresponded to class IV lupus nephritis, which also had a high degree of citrullination. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that functional iNOS activity is present in glomeruli as part of the inflammatory process in the kidney; therefore the products of iNOS could play a role in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.

Bipedal locomotion in Tropidurus torquatus (Wied, 1820) and Liolaemus lutzae Mertens, 1938.

Bipedalism has evolved on numerous occasions in phylogenetically diverse lizard families. In this paper we describe, for the first time, bipedal locomotion on South American lizards, the sand-dweller Liolaemus lutzae and the generalist Tropidurus torquatus. The lizards were videotaped running on a racetrack and the sequences were analyzed frame by frame. The body posture, as a whole, diverged a lot during bipedal locomotion between the two species, even though there was no difference regarding their sprint performance. The locomotor behavior of L. lutzae is, in general, more similar to the one observed on other sand-dweller lizards. Certain particularities are common, such as the digitigrade posture at footfall and throughout stance, trunk angles; and tail posture. In contrast, T. torquatus exhibited high trunk angles and dragged its tail, in a posture compared to basilisks. This body posture could be related to certain characteristics and obstacles of a microhabitat such as the one around lakes and streams (basilisks) and the one with compact shrubby vegetation (T. torquatus).

Bipedal locomotion in Tropidurus torquatus (Wied, 1820) and Liolaemus lutzae Mertens, 1938 / Bipedalismo em Tropidurus torquatus (Wied, 1820) e Liolaemus lutzae Mertens, 1938

Bipedalism has evolved on numerous occasions in phylogenetically diverse lizard families. In this paper we describe, for the first time, bipedal locomotion on South American lizards, the sand-dweller Liolaemus lutzae and the generalist Tropidurus torquatus. The lizards were videotaped running on a racetrack and the sequences were analyzed frame by frame. The body posture, as a whole, diverged a lot during bipedal locomotion between the two species, even though there was no difference regarding their sprint performance. The locomotor behavior of L. lutzae is, in general, more similar to the one observed on other sand-dweller lizards. Certain particularities are common, such as the digitigrade posture at footfall and throughout stance, trunk angles; and tail posture. In contrast, T. torquatus exhibited high trunk angles and dragged its tail, in a posture compared to basilisks. This body posture could be related to certain characteristics and obstacles of a microhabitat such as the one around lakes and streams (basilisks) and the one with compact shrubby vegetation (T. torquatus).

O bipedalismo apareceu em inúmeras ocasiões em famílias de lagartos filogeneticamente diversas. Neste trabalho, descrevemos, pela primeira vez, locomoção bipedal em lagartos sul-americanos, o lagarto de hábito terrestre Liolaemus lutzae e o generalista Tropidurus torquatus. Os lagartos foram filmados correndo em uma pista de corrida e as seqüências foram analisadas quadro a quadro. A postura corporal, como um todo, divergiu bastante durante a locomoção bipedal das duas espécies, mesmo quando não houve diferença significativa em relação ao desempenho locomotor. O comportamento locomotor de L. lutzae é, em geral, similar ao observado em outros lagartos especialistas em solos arenosos. Certas particularidades são comuns, como a postura digitígrada no momento de apoio e durante a fase de apoio; ângulos do corpo e postura da cauda. Em contraste, T. torquatus exibiu altos ângulos corporais e arrastava sua cauda, numa postura comparada à dos lagartos basiliscos. Este tipo de postura corporal pode estar relacionado com certas características e obstáculos de um microhabitat como ao redor de rios e riachos (basiliscos) e uma vegetação de arbustos compacta (T. torquatus).

Evaluation of a balanced fresh paste diet for maintenance of captive neotropical rattlesnakes used for venom production.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate efficacy of a balanced fresh paste diet for maintenance of captive neotropical rattlesnakes used for venom production. DESIGN: Controlled clinical trial. ANIMALS: 40 healthy neotropical rattlesnakes. PROCEDURE: Rattlesnakes were force-fed once per week (10% of body weight) for 19 weeks; 20 control snakes received dead mice, whereas 20 test snakes received a balanced fresh paste diet. Ecdysis rates were calculated, and body weight was recorded weekly. After 19 weeks, venom was extracted and analyzed. RESULTS: Sickness or deaths were not observed; weight loss during ecdysis and weight gain overall were similar between groups. Snakes fed the balanced fresh paste diet had similar ecdysis frequency, venom potency, and protein concentration in venom as did snakes fed mice. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that a balanced fresh paste diet has sufficient nutritional value to avoid weight loss and death and does not adversely affect venom quality in captive neotropical rattlesnakes.

Comparative efficacy evaluation of moxidectin gel and ivermectin paste against internal parasites of equines in Brazil.

A total of 24 male and female equines of mixed breed, 10-20 months of age and naturally infected with internal parasites was utilized in a controlled test to evaluate the efficacy of a moxidectin 2% gel formulation at the dosage of 0.4 mg moxidectin per kg of live weight and an ivermectin 1.87% commercial paste formulation at the dosage 0.2 mg ivermectin per kg applied orally. Animals were allocated into three groups of eight horses each based on pre-treatment eggs per gram (EPG) counts and treatments were randomized among the groups. One group was kept as untreated controls. One animal in the moxidectin-treated group died before the end of the trial from a cause unrelated to treatment leaving a total of seven animals in this group. Fecal egg counts were performed three times post-treatment and the number of parasites remaining in each animal was determined. Statistical analyses using geometric means were performed at the 1% level of significance. Both moxidectin and ivermectin preparations reduced initial EPG from a mean of 1600 to 0 on Days 5, 7 and at the end of the trial on Day 14. Efficacy percentages of moxidectin and ivermectin against immature and adult nematodes were as follows: Trichostrongylus axei, Parascaris equorum, Strongylus edentatus, S. vulgaris, Triodontophorus spp. and Gyalocephalus capitatus, 100% for both products; Habronema muscae 99.5 and 99.6%, respectively, Strongyloides westeri, 100 and 99.2%, respectively; Oxyuris equi, 99.6 and 100%, respectively; small strongyles, 99.7% for both products. Of the latter, the most numerous were: Cylicocyclus insigne, Cylicostephanus longibursatus and Cyathostomum catinatum. No Gasterophilus nasalis were found in horses from either treated group, while two of eight control horses had infections with thisparasite. Moxidectin showed greater efficacy (84.9%) than ivermectin (67.8%) against Strongylus vulgaris larvae found in the mesenteric artery aneurisms, but the difference was not statistically significant. Total parasite counts for both treated groups were significantly lower (p<0.01) than in the non-treated group. No significant differences were noted between moxidectin and ivermectin. Efficacy against the 30 nematode species found in this study was very evident for both products. As expected, neither moxidectin nor ivermectin was effective in controlling the tapeworm Anoplocephala perfoliata. No adverse reactions were observed during the experimental period.

Influence of peri-domiciliar environmental conditions in the dispersion and proliferation of phlebotomine sandflies in Parana state, southern Brazil

The results of phlebotomine collections with Falcäo light traps are described. The collections were made in an area of the Mururê farm, in the Terra Boa County, Paraná State, south of Brazil. One trap was installed at the border of a modified primitive forest and seven in animal shelters (poultry sheds and pigsties) distant 10 to 600m from this forest. Of a total of 5,122 phlebotomine 4,046 (79 per cent) were caught in an pigsty 10m from the border of the forest. The dominant species was Lutzomya whitmani. Dispersion of phlebotomine was near to 600m from the border of the forest and suggests that good environmental conditions for effective breeding in peridomiciliary areas in Mururê farm were not found, what explains the rare occurrence of tegumentary leishmaniasis there