Associations Between Family Caregiving and Romantic Relationships: An Exploratory Study With Nondistressed Couples Caring for an Outside Family Member.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Family caregiving-providing emotional and physical health care for a family member or friend with an illness or disability-can result in many outcomes, including stress and beneficial experiences. Both romantic and caregiving relationships are complex and varied. Nevertheless, little research has examined how caregiving and romantic relationships influence one another. The purpose of this study was to understand ways romantic partners who care for a family member outside of their romantic relationship perceive that their romantic relationship and caregiving experiences influence one another. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A qualitative study using thematic analysis was conducted. A sample of 5 couples where one or both partners were caring for a relative with dementia participated in interviews about their experiences in family caregiving and in their romantic relationship, as well as how the 2 roles interacted with each other. Couple members were interviewed separately and together. RESULTS: From these interviews, themes reflecting ways that caregiving influences romantic relationships, as well as ways romantic relationships influence caregiving emerged. Themes about caregiving influencing romantic relationships were caregiver stress interacting in the romantic relationship, the romantic relationship becoming less of a priority, and benefits experienced in the romantic relationship due to caregiving. Themes about romantic relationships influencing caregiving were partners improving the caregiving experience, and workload inequality. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: These findings broaden our understanding of how dyadic coping affects family caregiving and may suggest ways that the mutual influences caregivers experience between romantic relationships and caregiving benefits and challenges.

Women's Disengagement Behaviors During Couple Conflict: Investigating Risk Indicators of Intimate Partner Violence.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health concern, leading to prevention efforts focused on identifying risk indicators of escalating conflict between partners. Certain behaviors during conflict discussions have been uniquely linked to IPV, and there is evidence that disengagement behaviors-an emerging construct-are associated with IPV as well. However, research on disengagement and IPV has largely been limited to self-report, and available observational research is largely cross-sectional. Addressing these limitations, this study prospectively examined the association between observed disengagement behaviors during couple's conflict discussions and IPV 1 year later, using a sample of 83 heterosexual married or cohabitating partners. Behavioral coding was used to assess each partner's observed disengagement behaviors and each partner's psychological and physical IPV was assessed via questionnaire 1 year later. Linear regressions were used to investigate links between indicators of engagement (i.e., listening, questions, eye contact) and psychological and physical IPV perpetration and victimization. Less question asking and higher eye contact by women were associated with greater psychological and physical IPV perpetrated by both women and men 1 year later. Lower listening behaviors by women were associated with greater psychological (but not physical) IPV perpetrated by men 1 year later. In contrast, no disengagement behaviors displayed by men were significantly related to IPV. Applying a latent change score framework using baseline IPV data, findings indicated replicability of results, though with less consistency, suggesting that women's disengagement behaviors may reflect a larger pattern of abuse that predates and follows disengaged couple interactions. Findings suggest that a unique blend of verbal and nonverbal indicators of women's disengagement during couple conflict provides a meaningful signal of the emotional climate of the relationship.

Psychometric Properties and Factor Analysis of a Short Form of the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse.

The 28-item Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA) assesses four common forms of emotional abuse in intimate relationships and has been used extensively to study the development of intimate partner violence (IPV), the consequences of emotional abuse, and the outcomes of IPV interventions. The current study provides psychometric analyses of a shortened version of the MMEA using self-report data from a sample of men receiving treatment at a community-based relationship violence intervention program (RVIP; N = 467) and reports from their relationship partners (N = 252), and data from a sample of undergraduate students (N = 194) who reported on their own and their partners' abusive behavior. Theoretical and statistical considerations, including internal consistency after item deletion, were used to select items for the shortened version. In the clinic sample (for self- and partner reports) and in the undergraduate sample (for self-report only), the 16-item MMEA-Short Form (MMEA-SF) retains the 4-factor structure of the 28-item MMEA. In both samples and across reporting methods (self and partner), the 16-item MMEA-SF has good internal consistency, good concurrent validity with the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) psychological aggression subscale, and similar correlations with CTS2 physical assault subscale as the original 28-item MMEA version. The MMEA-SF can reduce assessment burden while maintaining good domain coverage and strong psychometric properties and will be an asset to researchers and practitioners who need a brief, multifaceted measure of emotional relationship abuse in both clinic and undergraduate samples.

Testing a self-determination theory perspective of informal caregiving: A preliminary study.

Informal caregivers provide valuable care for ill or disabled adults. Nevertheless, many caregivers experience negative consequences from caregiving such as reduced mental health. Balancing personal costs of caregiving with caregivers' desires or obligations to provide care, is necessary to promote the well-being of these individuals and their care recipients. Drawing on a self-determination theory (SDT) perspective, caregivers whose psychological needs for relatedness, autonomy, and competence are satisfied with their care recipient, and their care recipients' healthcare providers, should be more autonomously motivated to care. Greater autonomous motivation should promote better mental health. This study tested mediation models in a sample of 158 caregivers in the United States. Autonomous motivation was examined as a mediator of the (a) associations between caregivers' need satisfaction with their care recipient and caregiver burden and depressive symptoms, and (b) associations between caregivers' autonomy support received from their care recipients' healthcare providers and caregiver burden and depressive symptoms. Next, specific types of motivation that vary in their relative autonomy were examined as unique mediators. Support was found for models using autonomous motivation as the mediator. Additionally, caregivers' autonomy support and female caregivers' need satisfaction were positively associated with intrinsic motivation to care which was negatively associated with burden. Although much research suggests caregivers' outcomes stem from the care recipients' condition, such as their functional dependence on others, the present study focused on the caregivers' relationships and motivations. Results support an SDT perspective of caregiving. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The relation between mindfulness and perceived partner responsiveness during couples' vulnerability discussions.

Intimacy develops when a person discloses vulnerability and perceives their partner's response as supportive. However, a published experimental study found that individuals report their partners as less supportive in response to disclosures of specific examples of vulnerability that involve the partner (i.e., partner-inclusive) compared to disclosures that do not involve the partner (i.e., partner-exclusive). This research is an extension of findings from that experimental study and examines how individual differences in mindfulness and disclosure specificity are associated with perceived partner responsiveness during disclosures of partner-inclusive and partner-exclusive vulnerabilities. Cohabiting couples (N = 82) were randomly assigned to engage in either partner-inclusive or -exclusive vulnerability discussions. Each couple engaged in 2 video-recorded discussions so that each person took a turn as discloser and responder. Trained coders rated disclosures for specificity (i.e., whether or not the discloser used specific examples). Following each discussion, couples rated perceived partner responsiveness. Hypotheses were tested with multilevel modeling. Findings suggest that individuals perceived their partners' reactions as less responsive when they disclosed specific, partner-inclusive vulnerabilities and their partners had lower mindfulness. When partners had higher mindfulness, individuals perceived their partners as similarly responsive when disclosing partner-inclusive and -exclusive vulnerabilities, regardless of specificity. Mindfulness may enable couples to remain engaged during partner-inclusive vulnerability discussions leading to higher perceived responsiveness-an integral component of intimacy development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A Dyadic Analysis of Attachment Insecurities and Romantic Disengagement among Couples Seeking Relationship Therapy.

This study sought to assess the role of attachment insecurities on romantic disengagement among couples seeking relationship therapy. Dyadic associations were examined between attachment insecurities and romantic disengagement, accounting for depression, relationship satisfaction, and commitment, using a sample of 171 couples. Partners completed the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale and the Romantic Disengagement Scale. Path analysis revealed that attachment-related avoidance, but not anxiety, was associated with romantic disengagement. Men's attachment-related anxiety was related to greater disengagement in their partner. The combination of men's attachment-related avoidance and women's attachment-related anxiety was also significantly associated with women's romantic disengagement. Although attachment insecurities were associated with romantic disengagement, contextual and intrapersonal factors also contributed to our understanding of disengagement. Findings are discussed in light of clinical interventions for couple therapy.

The Development and Evaluation of a Statewide Training Center for Home Visitors and Supervisors.

This paper informs practice in community-based home visiting workforce development by describing the development and evaluation of a university-based training certificate program for home visitors and supervisors. The Interactive Systems Framework for Dissemination and Implementation (ISF; Wandersman et al., 2008) guides our conceptualization and paper organization. The ISF describes the components involved in translating research findings into effective implementation of prevention programs. We describe implementation and lessons learned from seven development activities: (a) review of the literature, (b) survey of other training initiatives across the country, (c) focus groups with home visitors and supervisors, (d) consultation with individual home visitors, (e) creation of a state advisory board of home visiting providers and stakeholders, (f) evaluation of two pilot trainings, and (g) video development. We then present evaluation data from 49 home visitors and 23 supervisors who completed the training certificate program after the pilot trainings. Both home visitors and supervisors rated training satisfaction highly, reported significant increases in self-efficacy related to the training topics, and reported extensive use of motivational communication techniques, which are the foundational skills of the training content. These and other favorable results reflect the benefits of building on advances in theory and science-based practice and of involving providers and stakeholders repeatedly throughout the development process.

Pulling away: Links among disengaged couple communication, relationship distress, and depressive symptoms.

Interpersonal theories of depression suggest that how couples communicate helps to explain bidirectional links between depressive symptoms and relationship distress. Disengaged and aversive couple communication should help explain these links. However, most research examining associations among couple communication, depressive symptoms and relationship distress have focused on aversive communication behaviors. Thus, this research examined associations among depressive symptoms, disengaged couple communication, and relationship distress in 2 studies. Study 1 examined cross-sectional associations using 2 heterogeneous samples of individuals in romantic relationships assessed via online survey. Study 2 examined the associations over 2 time points using Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling with data provided by newlywed couples. The first aim was to examine whether depressive symptoms were uniquely associated with disengaged couple communication after controlling for relationship distress and aversive couple communication. The second aim was to test whether disengaged couple communication explained the bidirectional associations between depressive symptoms and relationship distress controlling for aversive communication. Results for Aim 1 were consistent across studies. Depressive symptoms were uniquely associated with disengaged couple communication. Results for Aim 2 indicate that disengaged couple communication uniquely explains bidirectional associations between co-occurring relationship distress and depressive symptoms; and husbands' disengaged communication explains the association between husbands' depressive symptoms and husbands decline in relationship satisfaction. Results indicate there are unique contributions of disengaged couple communication for interpersonal theories of depression and suggest the importance of helping couple-members to effectively and meaningfully engage with one another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Skills for Healthy Adult Relationships at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County: Program Development and Preliminary Data.

The present study examines the development and preliminary pilot findings of Skills for Healthy Adult Relationships at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (SHARe@UMBC)-an intimate partner violence prevention program for college students. SHARe@UMBC is based on an integrative cognitive-behavioral model of communication and emotion regulation in close interpersonal relationships. There were four aims of the present study: first, to describe program development; second, to examine program acceptability and participant satisfaction; third, to examine the extent to which participants acquired relationship skills and their level of confidence in using those skills; and fourth, to examine perpetration and victimization of physical, sexual, and psychological aggression. These aims utilized data collected before program initiation, immediately after program completion, and at a follow-up 9 to 15 months after program completion. Findings from two pilot groups (15 students in total; eight women and seven men) indicated high ratings of program acceptability and satisfaction, reductions in negative communication, improvements in confidence using conflict management strategies with romantic partners and peers, and confidence initiating new romantic relationships. In addition, large effect sizes were observed for confidence providing emotional support to a romantic partner and self-disclosure with peers. Participants reported no incidents of physical, sexual, or psychological aggression perpetration or victimization at follow-up. Pilot implementation and initial uncontrolled results are encouraging and provide support for initiating a more extensive controlled investigation of program efficacy.

More or less: Newlyweds' preferred and received social support, affect, and relationship satisfaction.

Matching theories of social support suggest that receiving the amount and type of support one prefers from one's romantic partner promotes more favorable affect and higher relationship satisfaction. Individuals who feel they are provided with less support from their partner than they desire (underprovision) generally experience less positive affect, more negative affect, and tend to be less satisfied in their relationships. However, research findings are mixed with regard to whether receiving more of a particular type of support from one's partner than one desires (overprovision) is associated with more favorable affect and higher relationship satisfaction. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether underprovision and overprovision of two theoretically important types of social support from spouses-emotional or informational support-were associated with more favorable affect and higher relationship satisfaction in a sample of newlywed couples. Participants were 114 newlywed couples. Data were analyzed using Actor-Partner Interdependence Moderation Models. Results suggested that receiving more emotional support was associated with more favorable affect and higher relationship satisfaction regardless of support preferences. Also, wives who received more informational support from their husbands had higher relationship satisfaction regardless of support preferences. In contrast to findings for relationship satisfaction, the association between informational support and affect were consistent with matching hypotheses. Husbands who experienced underprovision of informational support from their wives, experienced less favorable affect. In contrast, wives who experienced overprovision of informational support from their husbands experienced higher depressive symptoms. Implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Newlyweds' perceptions of partner conflict behaviors and change in intimate safety over time.

The aim of this study was to examine hypotheses from Cordova and Scott's (2001) behavioral conceptualization of intimacy. This theory defines intimacy as a process that involves exhibiting interpersonally vulnerable behavior (i.e., behavior that is at risk of censure or punishment by another person) that is reinforced rather than punished by the other person's response. Over time, as more vulnerable behaviors are reinforced than are punished by a relationship partner, one develops feelings of intimate safety (i.e., a sense of comfort and safety in being vulnerable with one's partner). The current study investigated whether individuals' perceptions of how frequently their partner engages in reinforcing and punishing behaviors during conflict are associated with change in intimate safety. Ninety one newlywed couples completed assessments of intimate safety at Time 1 and Time 2 (1 year later), and completed assessments of their perceptions of partners' positive conflict behaviors (e.g., understanding one another's viewpoint) and negative conflict behaviors (e.g., criticizing, blaming) at Time 2 (reporting on the previous 6 months). Results indicated that individuals who reported that their partners engaged in high levels of negative conflict behaviors experienced decreased intimate safety from Time 1 to Time 2. Further, wives who reported that their husbands engaged in high levels of positive conflict behaviors experienced increased intimate safety from Time 1 to Time 2. This study is the first to test a key hypothesis of the behavioral conceptualization of intimacy, and findings are generally consistent with the theory. This line of research has important implications for couple interventions, which often target intimacy. (PsycINFO Database Record

Trust, attachment, and mindfulness influence intimacy and disengagement during newlyweds' discussions of relationship transgressions.

Discussions of relationship transgressions-violations of relationship norms-are often difficult for couples to successfully navigate. Nevertheless, engaging in and resolving these discussions should promote intimacy. Drawing on the risk regulation model, individuals' experiences of disengagement and intimacy during transgression discussions should depend on their trust in their partner regarding the transgression and how they regulate distress related to lower trust. Attachment style represents individual differences in emotion regulation in close relationship contexts and is indicated by the risk regulation model. In contrast, mindfulness also improves interpersonal emotion regulation but is not reflected in the model. The present study proposed that the effect of trust on the experience of intimacy and disengagement during transgression discussions would depend on individuals' attachment style or mindfulness. Hypotheses were tested in a sample of 81 heterosexual newlywed couples. Trust was positively associated with intimacy for individuals with higher attachment avoidance, but not for individuals with lower attachment avoidance. Trust was negatively associated with disengagement for individuals with either lower mindfulness or higher attachment avoidance. Trust was not associated with disengagement for individuals with higher mindfulness or lower attachment avoidance. Implications for theory and clinical interventions focused on increasing intimacy and decreasing disengagement in couple relationships are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

"Don't stand so close to me": an attachment perspective of disengagement and avoidance in marriage.

Theory and research support a link between disengaging or avoidant communication and global marital distress; however, questions remain regarding individual differences and situational influences associated with partners' tendency to disengage. Guided by an attachment framework, this study addressed two aims. The first aim was to replicate and extend previous research that has found mixed support for a link between higher attachment avoidance and more disengaging or avoidant behaviors during conflict interactions. To accomplish this aim, the authors examined two moderators of this link. The second aim was to clarify the relation between avoidant attachment and disengaging behaviors across two relationship contexts central to both the attachment and marital literatures-couples' conflictual and supportive interactions. In addressing these aims the authors proposed two hypotheses: first, spouses with higher attachment avoidance would be more disengaged during interactions in which their partners evidenced greater negative affect; second, spouses with higher attachment avoidance would be more disengaged during conflict interactions that they perceived as more destructive. Couples were assessed annually over 5 years. Aims were addressed both cross-sectionally and longitudinally and via questionnaire and behavioral observation data. During both conflictual and supportive interactions, wives' negative affect predicted husbands' disengagement when husbands were higher on avoidant attachment. Longitudinally, the link between husbands' perceptions of their couple conflict as destructive and husbands' conflict avoidance was stronger for husbands who were higher on attachment avoidance. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Internet administration of paper-and-pencil questionnaires used in couple research: assessing psychometric equivalence.

This study examined the psychometric equivalence of paper-and-pencil and Internet formats of key questionnaires used in couple research. Self-report questionnaires assessing interpersonal constructs (relationship satisfaction, communication/conflict management, partner support, emotional intimacy) and intrapersonal constructs (individual traits, psychological symptoms, contextual influences) were administered to young adults in committed dating relationships. The same measures were administered twice via paper-and-pencil and/or Internet methods over a 2-week period. Method order was counterbalanced among participants, and temporal stability was controlled. Intrapersonal and interpersonal measures generally remained reliable when administered online and demonstrated quantitative and qualitative equivalence across methods. The implications of online administration of questionnaires are discussed, and specific recommendations are made for researchers who wish to transition to online data collection.

The Relationship Quality Interview: evidence of reliability, convergent and divergent validity, and incremental utility.

Relationship satisfaction and adjustment have been the target outcome variables for almost all couple research and therapies. In contrast, far less attention has been paid to the assessment of relationship quality. The present study introduces the Relationship Quality Interview (RQI), a semistructured, behaviorally anchored individual interview. The RQI was designed to provide a more objective assessment of relationship quality as a dynamic, dyadic construct across 5 dimensions: (a) quality of emotional intimacy in the relationship, (b) quality of the couple's sexual relationship, (c) quality of support transactions in the relationship, (d) quality of the couple's ability to share power in the relationship, and (e) quality of conflict/problem-solving interactions in the relationship. Psychometric properties of RQI ratings were examined through scores obtained from self-report questionnaires and behavioral observation data collected cross-sectionally from a sample of 91 dating participants and longitudinally from a sample of 101 married couples. RQI ratings demonstrated strong reliability (internal consistency, interrater agreement, interpartner agreement, and correlations among scales), convergent validity (correlations between RQI scale ratings and questionnaire scores assessing similar domains of relationship quality), and divergent validity (correlations between RQI scale ratings and (a) behavioral observation codes assessing related constructs, (b) global relationship satisfaction scores, and (c) scores on individual difference measures of related constructs). Clinical implications of the RQI for improving couple assessment and interventions are discussed.

Children's genotypes interact with maternal responsive care in predicting children's competence: diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility?

We examined Genotype × Environment (G × E) interactions between children's genotypes (the serotonin transporter linked promoter region [5-HTTLPR] gene) and maternal responsive care observed at 15, 25, 38, and 52 months on three aspects of children's competence at 67 months: academic skills and school engagement, social functioning with peers, and moral internalization that encompassed prosocial moral cognition and the moral self. Academic and social competence outcomes were reported by both parents, and moral internalization was observed in children's narratives elicited by hypothetical stories and in a puppet interview. Analyses revealed robust G × E interactions, such that children's genotype moderated the effects of maternal responsive care on all aspects of children's competence. Among children with a short 5-HTTLPR allele (ss/sl), those whose mothers were more responsive were significantly more competent than those whose mothers were less responsive. Responsiveness had no effect for children with two long alleles (ll). For academic and social competence, the G × E interactions resembled the diathesis-stress model: ss/sl children of unresponsive mothers had particularly unfavorable outcomes, but ss/sl children of responsive mothers had no worse outcomes than ll children. For moral internalization, the G × E interaction reflected the differential susceptibility model: whereas ss/sl children of unresponsive mothers again had particularly unfavorable outcomes, ss/sl children of responsive mothers had significantly better outcomes than ll children.

Relationship adjustment, PTSD symptoms, and treatment utilization among coupled National Guard soldiers deployed to Iraq.

Although combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with considerable impairment in relationship adjustment, research has yet to investigate how PTSD symptoms and relationship distress uniquely and jointly predict utilization of a range of mental health services. The present study sought to examine these issues utilizing a longitudinal sample of National Guard soldiers surveyed 2-3 months following return from deployment to Iraq and again 12 months later (N = 223). Results indicated that PTSD symptom severity, but not relationship adjustment, uniquely predicted greater odds of utilizing individual-oriented mental health services. A significant interaction was found indicating associations between PTSD symptoms and the odds of using services were increased when soldiers reported greater relationship adjustment. For utilization of family-oriented care, greater relationship distress was significantly correlated with greater odds of using services, but associations with PTSD symptoms were nonsignificant. The association between relationship distress and utilization of family-oriented services did not vary significantly with severity of PTSD symptoms. Results suggest supportive intimate relationships facilitate mental health treatment utilization for soldiers with PTSD symptoms.

Children's conscience during toddler and preschool years, moral self, and a competent, adaptive developmental trajectory.

We investigated whether children's robust conscience, formed during early family socialization, promotes their future adaptive and competent functioning in expanded ecologies. We assessed two dimensions of conscience in young children (N = 100) at 25, 38, and 52 months in scripted laboratory contexts: internalization of their mothers' and fathers' rules, observed when the child was alone, and empathic concern toward each parent, observed in simulated distress paradigms. We also assessed the child's self-perception on moral dimensions (the moral self), using a puppet interview at 67 months. At 80 months, parents and teachers produced an overall measure of competent, adaptive functioning by rating children on multiple scales of competent, prosocial, rule-abiding behavior and antisocial behavior. As expected, children with histories of a stronger internalization of both parents' rules were more competent and better socialized; for maternal rules, that link was mediated by the child's moral self. The link between the child's history of empathy toward the mother and future socialization was also significant, but it was not mediated by the moral self. This study elucidates the roles of classic components of morality--moral conduct, affect, and self--as antecedents of an adaptive developmental trajectory from toddler to early school age.

Positive socialization mechanisms in secure and insecure parent-child dyads: two longitudinal studies.

BACKGROUND: Implications of early attachment have been extensively studied, but little is known about its long-term indirect sequelae, where early security organization moderates future parent-child relationships, serving as a catalyst for adaptive and maladaptive processes. Two longitudinal multi-trait multi-method studies examined whether early security amplified beneficial effects of children's willing, receptive stance toward the parent on socialization outcomes. METHODS: We examined parent-child early attachment organization, assessed in the Strange Situation at 14-15 months, as moderating links between children's willing stance toward parents and socialization outcomes in Study 1 (108 mothers and children, followed to 73 months) and Study 2 (101 mothers, fathers, and children, followed to 80 months). Children's willing stance was observed as committed compliance at 14 and 22 months in Study 1, and as responsiveness to the parent in naturalistic interactions and teaching contexts at 25 and 67 months in Study 2. Socialization outcomes included children's internalization of maternal prohibition, observed at 33, 45, and 56 months, and maternal ratings of children's externalizing problems at 73 months in Study 1, and mothers' and fathers' ratings of children's oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder symptoms at 80 months in Study 2. RESULTS: Indirect effects of attachment were replicated across both studies and diverse measures: Attachment security significantly amplified the links between children's willing stance to mothers and all outcomes. Secure children's willing, cooperative stance to mothers predicted future successful socialization outcomes. Insecure children's willing stance conferred no beneficial effects. CONCLUSIONS: Implications of early attachment extend to long-term, indirect developmental sequelae. Security in the first year serves as a catalyst for future positive socialization processes.

A longitudinal investigation of the affective environment in families with young children: from infancy to early school age.

We examined the affective environment in 102 families studied longitudinally when children were 7, 15, 25, 38, 52, and 67 months of age. At each assessment, every mother-child and father-child dyad was observed in typical daily contexts. Each person's emotions of affection, joy, and anger were coded. Both parents rated marital satisfaction when children were 15, 52, and 67 months. Growth curve analyses, using Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling, examined (a) developmental changes in emotions, (b) within-relationship influences of the partner's emotions, (c) across-relationship influences of emotions in other parent's interactions with the child, and (d) associations between marital quality and emotions over time. Parents' emotional expressiveness was highest early in the child's development, and declined thereafter. Children's anger was highest at 15 months of age, and declined thereafter, and their positive emotions, particularly with mothers, increased over time. Generally, one's positive emotions and better marital quality were associated with greater positive emotion within- and across-relationships, whereas one's anger was associated with greater anger within- and across-relationships. However, any emotion expression elicited greater affection in the interaction partner. Parents' neuroticism did not account for the convergence of emotions across relationships.