Human-animal interactions and machine-animal interactions in animals under human care: A summary of stakeholder and researcher perceptions and future directions.

Animals under human care are exposed to a potentially large range of both familiar and unfamiliar humans. Human-animal interactions vary across settings, and individuals, with the nature of the interaction being affected by a suite of different intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These interactions can be described as positive, negative or neutral. Across some industries, there has been a move towards the development of technologies to support or replace human interactions with animals. Whilst this has many benefits, there can also be challenges associated with increased technology use. A day-long Animal Welfare Research Network workshop was hosted at Harper Adams University, UK, with the aim of bringing together stakeholders and researchers (n = 38) from the companion, farm and zoo animal fields, to discuss benefits, challenges and limitations of human-animal interactions and machine-animal interactions for animals under human care and create a list of future research priorities. The workshop consisted of four talks from experts within these areas, followed by break-out room discussions. This work is the outcome of that workshop. The key recommendations are that approaches to advancing the scientific discipline of machine-animal interactions in animals under human care should focus on: (1) interdisciplinary collaboration; (2) development of validated methods; (3) incorporation of an animal-centred perspective; (4) a focus on promotion of positive animal welfare states (not just avoidance of negative states); and (5) an exploration of ways that machines can support a reduction in the exposure of animals to negative human-animal interactions to reduce negative, and increase positive, experiences for animals.

Measuring lameness prevalence: Effects of case definition and assessment frequency.

Lameness assessments are commonly conducted at a single point in time, but such assessments are subject to multiple sources of error. We conducted a longitudinal study, assessing the gait of 282 lactating dairy cows weekly during the first 12 wk of lactation, with the aim of assessing how lameness prevalence changed in relation to case definition and assessment frequency. Gait was scored using a 5-point scale where scores of 1 and 2 were considered sound, 3 was clinically lame, and 4 and 5 were severely lame. We created 5 lameness definitions using increasingly stringent thresholds based upon the number of consecutive events of locomotion score ≥3. In LAME1, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was ≥3 at any scoring event, in LAME2, LAME3, LAME4, and LAME5, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was 3 or higher during 2, 3, 4, and 5 consecutive scoring events, respectively. We also assessed the effect of assessment frequency on measures of prevalence and incidence using weekly assessment (ASSM1), 1 assessment every 2 wk (ASSM2), 1 assessment every 3 wk (ASSM3), and 1 assessment every 4 wk (ASSM4). Using LAME1, 69.2% of cows were considered lame at some point during the trial, with an average point prevalence of 31.8% (SD: 2.8) and average incidence rate of 10.9 cases/100 cow weeks (SD: 3.7). Lameness prevalence decreased to 28.0% when using LAME5. Survival analysis was used to assess the effects of parity, using these different case definitions. Parity is a known risk for lameness, such that case definitions and prevalence estimates should be stratified by parity to inform management decisions. Using the LAME3 criterion, primiparous cows had the highest chance of reaching 12 wk without a lameness event, and fourth and higher parities had the lowest. Weighted linear and quadratic kappa values were used to assess agreement between different assessment frequencies and lameness definitions; we found substantial to excellent agreement between ASSM1 and ASSM2 using LAME1, LAME2, and LAME3 definitions. Agreement was fair to substantial between ASSM1 and ASSM3 and low to fair between ASSM1 and ASSM4. Likewise, the agreement between LAME1 and LAME2 was fair in primiparous cows, substantial in second and third parity cows, and poor to fair in fourth and greater parity cows. We conclude that lameness prevalence estimates are dependent upon case definition and that the use of more stringent case definitions results in fewer cows classified as lame. These results suggest that routine locomotion assessments be conducted at least every 2 wk, and that cows should be defined as lame on the basis of 2 consecutive assessments.

Invited review: The welfare of dairy cattle housed in tiestalls compared to less-restrictive housing types: A systematic review.

Many dairy cattle worldwide are housed in tiestalls, meaning that they are tethered by the neck to individual stalls. On some farms, tied cattle are permitted seasonal access to pasture, but otherwise their movements are restricted compared with cows housed in freestall barns or other loose housing systems. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the scientific literature pertaining the welfare of tied dairy cattle through comparison with less-restrictive housing systems. Articles identified by PubMed and Web of Science underwent a 5-phase screening process, resulting in the inclusion of 102 papers. These papers addressed measures of welfare related to affective state, natural behavior, and health (with the lattermost category subdivided into hoof and leg disorders, lameness, mastitis, transition disease, and other diseases or conditions). Health was the most researched topic (discussed in 86% of articles); only 19% and 14% of studies addressed natural behavior and affective state, respectively. Our review highlights different health benefits for tethered and loose cattle. For example, tied cattle experience reduced prevalence of white line disease and digital dermatitis, whereas loose cattle experience fewer leg lesions and injuries. The prevalence of mastitis, transition diseases, and other conditions did not differ consistently across housing types. We found that the expression of certain natural behaviors, particularly those associated with lying down (e.g., time spent kneeling, unfulfilled intentions to lie down), were impaired in tiestalls. Articles addressing affective state found benefits to loose housing, but these studies focused almost exclusively on (1) physiological measurements and (2) cow comfort, a concept that lacks a consistent operational definition across studies. We call for future research into the affective state of tied cattle that extends beyond these explorations and employs more sophisticated methodologies.

The Freestall Reimagined: Effects on Stall Hygiene and Space Usage in Dairy Cattle.

Modern freestall barns for dairy cattle have been constructed with considerations for dairy cow cleanliness; partitions and other stall features such as neck rails are designed to reduce manure contamination of bedding and decrease farm labor. However, cows prefer to lie in more open spaces, including on bedded packs and pasture. We created an "alternative" housing area by modifying a traditional freestall pen and including flexible partitions to create larger lying areas. We assessed cattle lying behaviour, including lying postures, in this alternative pen (ALT) compared to an open pack (OP) and freestalls (FS) with different stocking densities. We also assessed levels of manure contamination across systems. Cleanliness was highest in FS, but ALT provided substantial improvement compared to OP. Cattle spent more time lying down in OP and ALT compared to FS. There were few differences in postures (such as lying with limbs outstretched) between OP and ALT, but cows in both of these systems more often lay in extended positions compared to when they were housed in FS. Housing in OP and ALT was associated with reduced perching for cows with high body weight; perching has been linked to an increased prevalence of both hoof lesions and lameness. Thus, alternative lying areas can offer a solution for producers seeking to provide cattle with the advantages of a more open lying area, while improving hygiene relative to an open pack.

Differences in the fecal microbiota of dairy calves reared with differing sources of milk and levels of maternal contact.

The practice of rearing cows and calves together is gaining popularity on dairy farms, with different systems currently under assessment in mainland Europe, the United Kingdom, and Oceania. Research into the effects of cow-calf rearing has primarily focused on direct health and welfare implications, and little work has examined the role of different rearing paradigms on calf microbiota. We trialed a cow-calf rearing system on a Canadian dairy farm and compared fecal microbiota of these calves with the microbiota of calves reared according to the conventional practice of the same farm (separated from the dam and fed waste milk). At 4 wk, the conventionally reared calves had reduced relative abundance of Lactobacillus and higher relative abundance of other taxa, including Sutterella, Prevotella, and Bacteroides. We also detected predicted functional differences, such as reduced l-tryptophan biosynthesis in conventionally reared calves. These results suggest that maternal contact may influence the calf microbiota, but the observed differences are also likely related to other aspects of the rearing environment independent of maternal contact (e.g., potential exposure to antibiotic residues in waste milk). These findings provide preliminary evidence of the effects of early rearing environments on the establishment of the dairy calf fecal microbiota. This research is needed, given the critical role of the bovine gut microbiome in behavioral, metabolic, and immune development.

Predicting Disease in Transition Dairy Cattle Based on Behaviors Measured Before Calving.

Dairy cattle are particularly susceptible to metritis, hyperketonemia (HYK), and mastitis in the weeks after calving. These high-prevalence transition diseases adversely affect animal welfare, milk production, and profitability. Our aim was to use prepartum behavior to predict which cows have an increased risk of developing these conditions after calving. The behavior of 213 multiparous and 105 primiparous Holsteins was recorded for approximately three weeks before calving by an electronic feeding system. Cows were also monitored for signs of metritis, HYK, and mastitis in the weeks after calving. The data were split using a stratified random method: we used 70% of our data (hereafter referred to as the "training" dataset) to develop the model and the remaining 30% of data (i.e., the "test" dataset) to assess the model's predictive ability. Separate models were developed for primiparous and multiparous animals. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve using the test dataset for multiparous cows was 0.83, sensitivity and specificity were 73% and 80%, positive predictive value (PPV) was 73%, and negative predictive value (NPV) was 80%. The area under the ROC curve using the test dataset for primiparous cows was 0.86, sensitivity and specificity were 71% and 84%, PPV was 77%, and NPV was 80%. We conclude that prepartum behavior can be used to predict cows at risk of metritis, HYK, and mastitis after calving.

Symposium review: Considerations for the future of dairy cattle housing: An animal welfare perspective.

Many contemporary dairy cattle housing practices are at odds with societal perceptions of positive animal welfare. The public (i.e., those external to the dairy industry) typically emphasizes the importance of naturalness for dairy cattle, such as through provision of pasture, freedom of movement, and the ability to interact socially with conspecifics. Yet, in the United States, the majority of lactating dairy cattle are reportedly housed without any access to pasture, and almost 39% of dairy farms use tiestalls, which restrict movement and social interactions. In addition to being in conflict with public expectations, a lack of pasture access and restrictive housing systems are also in conflict with the animals' own motivations, which can adversely affect their welfare. For example, dairy cattle are highly motivated to access pasture and show a reduction in oral stereotypies when allowed on pasture after periods of tethering. Calves housed without social contact have cognitive deficits and exhibit increased fear responses to novelty. We argue that the long-term sustainability of the dairy industry will depend on the extent to which housing systems reflect public concerns and the animals' priorities. The adoption of technologies, such as automated feeders and remote monitoring systems, may represent a means to practically promote the animals' natural behavior while simultaneously improving individualized care. Although older generations of the public may consider technological solutions to be a further deviation from naturalness and a departure from dairy farming's agrarian roots, the definition of "naturalness" for younger generations may well have expanded to include technology. As the buying power shifts to these younger generations, the adoption of technologies that promote natural cattle behaviors may be one means toward reconciling the disconnect between public perceptions of animal welfare and contemporary dairy farming practices.

Feeding behavior and agonistic interactions at the feed bunk are associated with hyperketonemia and metritis diagnosis in dairy cattle.

Hyperketonemia and metritis are common in the weeks after calving. This study tested if feeding and agonistic behaviors before calving were associated with the development of hyperketonemia (HYK) and metritis after calving. Holstein cows on 5 commercial farms were monitored for HYK (as identified using a cow-side ß-hydroxybutyrate test) and metritis (using visual and olfactory assessment of vaginal discharge); both tests were conducted twice a week for 2 wk. Based on this assessment, we selected a balanced sample of cows that remained healthy (no signs of illness; n = 20), cows diagnosed with either HYK (n = 20) or metritis (n = 20), and cows with both HYK and metritis (n = 20). Video recordings from the 8 wk before calving (scored every 2 wk for 90 min immediately after fresh feed delivery) were used to evaluate feeding behavior and competition at the feed bunk. Feeding behavior before calving was associated with postpartum diagnosis of HYK and metritis. Specifically, cows that spent less time eating had higher odds of HYK and metritis. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least 1 condition) increased by 1.3 times for every additional 15 min spent eating. Additionally, cows that were involved in fewer agonistic interactions prepartum were more likely to be diagnosed with both conditions during the postpartum period. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least one condition) increased by 1.9 times for every 6 additional interactions. We conclude that prepartum feeding and agonistic behaviors can be used to identify animals at risk of HYK and metritis postpartum.

The complex relationship between welfare and reproduction in cattle.

Using reproduction parameters as indicators for cattle welfare has limitations and, at best, these parameters should only be viewed as indirect indicators of welfare. On a farm level, measures such as fertility rates emphasize biological performance of the herd but fail to consider the welfare of individual animals. Even on an individual level, the relationship between reproductive effectiveness and animal welfare is complex. Good reproductive performance does not automatically signify good welfare, as domestication and targeted breeding programmes have led to prioritization of high productive and reproductive performance in most modern farm animal species. In this review, we synthesize literature regarding cattle husbandry, reproduction, welfare and their multidimensional relationships. We argue that practices such as artificial insemination or the use of sexed semen may provide potential welfare advantages as these practices reduce the risk of disease transmission and injury or enable selection of specific beneficial traits. Furthermore, they may offer a solution to current practices jeopardizing welfare, such as the management of surplus bull calves in the dairy industry. Conversely, the animals' ability to perform natural behaviours such as oestrous expression, an aspect arguably contributing to welfare, is often limited on commercial farms; this limitation is particularly evident in housing systems such as tie stalls where movement is restricted. Moreover, common management practices such as oestrus manipulation may lead to negative attitudes in citizens who often regard naturalness as important element of animal welfare.

Invited review: A systematic review of the effects of prolonged cow-calf contact on behavior, welfare, and productivity.

Separation of calves from cows within hours or days of birth is common on dairy farms. Stakeholders have conflicting perspectives on whether this practice is harmful or beneficial for the animals' welfare and production. Our objective was to critically evaluate the scientific evidence for both acute and long-term effects of early separation versus an extended period of cow-calf contact. The outcomes investigated were the behavior, welfare (excluding physical health), and performance (milk yield and growth, respectively) of dairy cows and calves. Primary research papers were found through targeted Web of Science searches, the reference lists of recent reviews for each topic, and the reference lists of papers identified from these sources. Studies were included if they were published in English, the full text was accessible, and they compared treatments with and without contact between dairy cows and calves for a specified period. Early separation (within 24 h postpartum) was found to reduce acute distress responses of cows and calves. However, longer cow-calf contact typically had positive longer-term effects on calves, promoting more normal social behavior, reducing abnormal behavior, and sometimes reducing responses to stressors. In terms of productivity, allowing cows to nurse calves generally decreased the volume of milk available for sale during the nursing period, but we found no consistent evidence of reduced milk production over a longer period. Allowing a prolonged period of nursing increased calf weight gains during the milk-feeding period. In summary, extended cow-calf contact aggravates the acute distress responses and reduces the amount of saleable milk while the calves are suckling, but it can have positive effects on behaviors relevant to welfare in the longer term and benefit calf growth. The strength of these conclusions is limited, however, given that relatively few studies address most of these effects and that experimental design including timing of contact and observations are often inconsistent across studies. Few studies presented indicators of long-term welfare effects other than abnormal and social behavior of the calves.

Invited review: A systematic review of the effects of early separation on dairy cow and calf health.

Concern from the public is growing regarding early cow-calf separation, yet proponents of this practice maintain that artificial rearing is critical for cow and calf health. Early separation is assumed to reduce the risk of transfer of pathogens from dam to neonatal calf, but a wide range of health benefits associated with extended cow-calf contact has also been documented. The aim of this systematic review was to report and synthesize conclusions from the literature on dairy cow and calf health in conventional rearing versus cow-calf contact systems. Peer-reviewed, published manuscripts, written in English, directly comparing dairy cow or calf health in artificial versus suckling systems, were eligible for inclusion. We conducted 7 targeted searches using Web of Science to identify key literature on important health conditions. The resulting manuscripts underwent a 4-step appraisal process, and further manuscripts were sourced from reference lists. This process resulted in a final sample of 70 articles that addressed cow and calf health. Sufficient literature was available to assess mastitis in cows, and scours, cryptosporidiosis, Johne's disease, pneumonia, immunity, and mortality in calves. The results for cryptosporidiosis, pneumonia, immunity, and mortality were mixed, with some differences between studies likely attributable to flawed comparisons between cohorts. Overall, the articles addressing calf scours and mastitis pointed to beneficial or no effects of suckling. The studies addressing Johne's disease did not find cow-calf contact to be a significant risk factor. In conclusion, the scientific peer-reviewed literature on cow and calf health provides no consistent evidence in support of early separation.

Elucidating Transmission Patterns of Endemic Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Using Molecular Epidemiology.

Mycobacterial diseases are persistent and characterized by lengthy latent periods. Thus, epidemiological models require careful delineation of transmission routes. Understanding transmission routes will improve the quality and success of control programs. We aimed to study the infection dynamics of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the causal agent of ruminant Johne's disease, and to distinguish within-host mutation from individual transmission events in a longitudinally MAP-defined dairy herd in upstate New York. To this end, semi-annual fecal samples were obtained from a single dairy herd over the course of seven years, in addition to tissue samples from a selection of culled animals. All samples were cultured for MAP, and multi-locus short-sequence repeat (MLSSR) typing was used to determine MAP SSR types. We concluded from these precise MAP infection data that, when the tissue burden remains low, the majority of MAP infections are not detectable by routine fecal culture but will be identified when tissue culture is performed after slaughter. Additionally, we determined that in this herd vertical infection played only a minor role in MAP transmission. By means of extensive and precise longitudinal data from a single dairy herd, we have come to new insights regarding MAP co-infections and within-host evolution.

A cross-sectional study of suckling calves' passive immunity and associations with management routines to ensure colostrum intake on organic dairy farms.

BACKGROUND: For suckling dairy calves, different management routines to ensure sufficient colostrum intake are applied: visual assessment, hand feeding supplemental colostrum or assistance. However, knowledge on the efficacy of these methods to prevent failure of passive transfer [FPT: serum immunoglobulin (IgG) < 10 g/L] is lacking. Our objectives were to explore FPT prevalence in suckling dairy calves and associations with common management routines to ensure colostrum intake. From 20 organic herds, 156 calf blood samples (mean ± SD; 7.8 ± 1.24 per herd) and 141 colostrum samples from the dams were analysed. All calves suckled the dam. Factors known to affect serum and colostrum IgG were evaluated, including the method applied by the producer to ensure calf colostrum intake and whether it deviated from routine practice for any reason. RESULTS: The prevalence of FPT was 31%. Mean serum and colostrum IgG (± SD) were 16.0 ± 10.0 g/L and 39.4 ± 26.4 g/L, respectively. Only colostrum IgG was found to have a statistically significant influence on the prevalence of FPT. Variation in serum IgG was also explained mainly by colostrum IgG. Of calves receiving colostrum according to farm routine, calves receiving supplemental colostrum with a bottle had lower serum IgG levels than did calves receiving no additional colostrum. However, no within-herd effect was found. With a high between-herd variation, colostrum IgG ranged from 2 to 135 g/L, and only 23% of the samples had a IgG content > 50 g/L. Colostrum IgG was significantly higher in samples collected during spring, compared to samples collected during winter, and lower in 2nd parity cows. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that for calves capable of finding the udder and suckling independently, there is no direct benefit of routinely hand feeding colostrum although herd level factors (e.g. feeding, management etc.) may play an important role. FPT prevalence in this study was high, and comparable to that of calves in conventional herds, separating cow and calf at birth. Still, the findings of a high FPT prevalence and inferior colostrum quality indicates a need for improved awareness among dairy producers practicing cow-calf suckling.

The Dairy Cattle Housing Dilemma: Natural Behavior Versus Animal Care.

Animal welfare has historically been defined at the intersection of 3 key concepts: (1) health and biological functioning, (2) affective state, and (3) natural living. For farmed animals, such as dairy cattle, health and biological functioning are often prioritized, sometimes at the expense of natural living. In this work, the authors discuss the perceived conflict between the duty of care exercised by producers and the resulting consequences to natural behavior expression. They also provide considerations on how indoor housing systems for dairy cattle may be refined to better permit natural behaviors, with particular emphasis on animals' motivational priorities.

Longitudinal data collection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies Paratuberculosis infections in dairy herds: the value of precise field data.

Longitudinal infection data on Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) was collected on three dairy farms in Northeastern United States during approximately 10 years. Precise data on animal characteristics and animal location within farm were collected on these farms. Cows were followed over time with regard to MAP status during biannual fecal and serum sampling and quarterly serum sampling. Approximately 13 000 serum samples, 6500 fecal samples and 2000 tissue samples were collected during these years. Prevalence of positive samples was 1.4% for serological samples, 2.2% in fecal samples and 16.7% in tissue samples. Infection dynamics of MAP was studied and resulted in a number of potential changes in our understanding of MAP infection dynamics. First, a high prevalence of MAP infection was observed in these herds due to lifetime follow up of cows, including slaughter. Second, two distinctly different infection patterns were observed, so called non-progressors and progressors. Non-progressors were characterized by intermittent and low shedding of MAP bacteria and a virtual absence of a humoral immune response. Progressors were characterized by continuous and progressive shedding and a clearly detectable and progressive humoral immune response. Strain typing of MAP isolates on the three farms identified on two of three farms a dominant strain type, indicating that some strains are more successful in terms of transmission and infection progression. Continuous high quality longitudinal data collection turned out to be an essential tool in our understanding of pathobiology and epidemiology of MAP infections in dairy herds.