Activated long-term memory and visual working memory during hybrid visual search: Effects on target memory search and distractor memory.

In hybrid visual search, observers must maintain multiple target templates and subsequently search for any one of those targets. If the number of potential target templates exceeds visual working memory (VWM) capacity, then the target templates are assumed to be maintained in activated long-term memory (aLTM). Observers must search the array for potential targets (visual search), as well as search through memory (target memory search). Increasing the target memory set size reduces accuracy, increases search response times (RT), and increases dwell time on distractors. However, the extent of observers' memory for distractors during hybrid search is largely unknown. In the current study, the impact of hybrid search on target memory search (measured by dwell time on distractors, false alarms, and misses) and distractor memory (measured by distractor revisits and recognition memory of recently viewed distractors) was measured. Specifically, we aimed to better understand how changes in behavior during hybrid search impacts distractor memory. Increased target memory set size led to an increase in search RTs, distractor dwell times, false alarms, and target identification misses. Increasing target memory set size increased revisits to distractors, suggesting impaired distractor location memory, but had no effect on a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) distractor recognition memory test presented during the search trial. The results from the current study suggest a lack of interference between memory stores maintaining target template representations (aLTM) and distractor information (VWM). Loading aLTM with more target templates does not impact VWM for distracting information.

Differences in the duration of the attentional blink when viewing nature vs. urban scenes.

The current study examined how viewing nature vs. urban scenes impacts the duration of the attentional blink. Nature scenes produce a broader allocation of attention, allowing attention to spread and reduce the ability to disengage attention. Urban scenes produce a narrowed allocation of attention, allowing efficient encoding of relevant information, inhibition of irrelevant information and a speedier disengagement of attention. Participants viewed a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) of either nature or urban scenes. For both scene categories, an attentional blink was evident by reduced accuracy for reporting a second target that occurred two or three scenes after an accurately reported first target. However, the duration of the attentional blink was reduced for urban scenes compared with nature scenes. A peripheral target detection task confirmed a difference in the allocation of attention between scene categories. The peripheral targets were better detected for nature scenes, suggesting that participants have a broader spread of attention for nature scenes, even in an RSVP task. The shorter duration of the attentional blink for urban scenes was consistent across four experiments with small and large sets of urban and nature scenes. Therefore, urban scenes reliably reduce the attentional blink duration compared with nature scenes, and this could be attributed to a narrowed attention allocation that allows speedier disengagement of attention in an RSVP.

Advancing Pharmacy Education by Moving From Sequenced "Integration" to True Curricular Integration.

OBJECTIVES: Traditional pharmacy education focuses on teaching content, which is affectionately known as "silos". Each topic area or discipline includes a course or an individual class session designed to impart knowledge, skills, or abilities needed for the student pharmacist to become a practice-ready, team-ready pharmacist. With expanding content and educational standards, there have been calls to simplify and streamline content. Truly "integrated" curricula (sequenced, coordinated, and collaboratively taught) where silos are removed to foster student integrative learning and build connections across disciplines (foundational, clinical, and social or administrative sciences) could be one such approach. Thus, the objectives of this integrative review are to provide recommendations for decreasing curriculum overload by moving to truly integrated curricula, explore integrated approaches, discuss challenges and barriers, and propose next steps for creating integrated curricula that decrease content overload. FINDINGS: Although there are different approaches to curricular integration, most curricular integration occurs through sequenced courses or integrated cases. In order to truly streamline content and foster connections across disciplines, integration must move beyond simply sequencing of content to content that includes all the disciplines taught seamlessly. When taught together, curricular integration offers the opportunity to cover medication classes quickly and efficiently with multiple opportunities for reinforcement. SUMMARY: There remains limited data and examples of these types of true integration approaches. Thus, it is important for the Academy to determine if the integration of content improves curricular outcomes, positively affects students' learning, and addresses curriculum overload by increasing efficiency and streamlining curricula.

Loss aversion in the control of attention.

Loss aversion is a psychological bias where an increase in loss is perceived as being larger than an equivalent increase in gain. In the present study, two experiments were conducted to explore whether attentional control reflects loss aversion. Participants performed a visual search task. On each trial, a red target and a green target were presented simultaneously, and participants were free to search for either one. Participants always gained points when they searched for a gain color target (e.g., red). However, they gained or lost points when they searched for a gain-loss color target (e.g., green). In Experiment 1, the expected values of the gain color and the gain-loss color were equal. Therefore, for maximizing the reward, participants did not need to preferably search for a particular color. However, results showed that participants searched for the gain color target more than the gain-loss color target, suggesting stronger attentional control for the gain color than the gain-loss color. In Experiment 2, even though the expected value of the gain-loss color was greater than that of the gain color, attention was allocated to the gain color more than to the gain-loss color. The results imply that attentional control can operate in accordance with the loss aversion principle when the boundary conditions for loss aversion in a repeated binary decision-making task were met.

Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence for the flexible recruitment of feature- and object-based processing in visual working memory comparison.

Previous research is inconclusive on when visual working memory (VWM) can be object-based or feature-based. Prior event-related potential (ERP) studies using change detection tasks have found that amplitudes of the N200-an ERP index of VWM comparison- are sensitive to changes in both relevant and irrelevant features, suggesting a bias toward object-based processing. To test whether VWM comparison processing can operate in a feature-based manner, we aimed to create circumstances that would support feature-based processing by: 1) using a strong task-relevance manipulation, and 2) repeating features within a display. Participants completed two blocks of a change detection task for four-item displays in which they were told to respond to color changes (task relevant) but not shape changes (task irrelevant). The first block contained only task-relevant changes to create a strong task-relevance manipulation. In the second block, both relevant and irrelevant changes were present. In both blocks, half of the arrays contained within-display feature repetitions (e.g. two items of the same color or shape). We found that during the second block, N200 amplitudes were sensitive to task-relevant but not irrelevant features regardless of repetition status, consistent with feature-based processing. However, analyses of behavioral data and N200 latencies suggested that object-based processing was occurring at some stages of VWM processing on task-irrelevant feature change trials. In particular, task-irrelevant changes may be processed after no task-relevant feature change is revealed. Overall, the results from the current study suggest that the VWM processing is flexible and can be either object- or feature-based.

Diminishing sensitivity and absolute difference in value-driven attention.

Kim and Beck (2020b) demonstrated that value-driven attention is based on relative value rather than absolute value, suggesting that prospect theory is relevant to our understanding of value-driven attention. To further this understanding, the present study investigated the impacts of diminishing sensitivity on value-driven attention. According to diminishing sensitivity, changes in outcomes have greater impacts nearer the reference point of 0 than farther from the point. Thus, the difference between $1 and $100 looms larger than that between $901 and $1000, due to their different ratios (100/1 > 1000/901). However, according to the absolute difference hypothesis, the differences should have similar impacts due to the absolute differences being the same (100 - 1 = 1000 - 901). Experiment 1 investigated whether diminishing sensitivity operates in the modified value-driven attention paradigm while controlling the impact of absolute differences. In the training phase, 100-point and 1000-point color targets had references of 1-point and 901-point color targets, respectively. In the test phase, 100-point color distractors attracted attention more than 1000-point color distractors, supporting the diminishing sensitivity hypothesis. Experiment 2 examined the absolute difference hypothesis while controlling the impact of diminishing sensitivity. Contrary to the absolute difference hypothesis, the test phase showed that 1000-point color distractors (compared with 10-point colors for a 990 absolute difference in the training phase) failed to attract attention more than 100-point color distractors (compared with 1-point colors, for a 99 absolute difference). These results suggest that diminishing sensitivity rather than absolute difference influences value-driven attention, further supporting the relevance of prospect theory to value-driven attention.

Teaching Intimate Partner Violence Education: A Quasi-Experimental Study Exploring Gaming and Storytelling.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to evaluate best strategies for teaching intimate partner violence (IPV) education in an undergraduate community health nursing course. Results suggest gaming was a more effective strategy than storytelling for knowledge acquisition and storytelling was more effective for knowledge retention. IPV-related nursing interventions can impact client outcomes; therefore, education is needed prior to entering the workforce. The evaluation of strategies to improve knowledge acquisition and retention of IPV content is essential to ensure best practices for detection and intervention.

Supporting Struggling Students Through Therapeutic Communication.

ABSTRACT: Although nursing faculty teach students the basics of therapeutic communication for patient care, faculty may be overlooking the significance of using therapeutic communication with their students. When nursing students experience stress and mental health concerns such as sadness, anxiety, negative thoughts, and depression, instructors need to assess these problems and implement therapeutic communication strategies. Faculty who recognize symptoms and engage students can promote healthy relationships and positive academic outcomes while exemplifying Christlike care for their students.

Digital Storytelling: A Qualitative Study Exploring the Benefits, Challenges, and Solutions.

Many years ago, the National League for Nursing voiced the need to improve nursing education through innovative pedagogies supported by research. Digital stories are one of the newest pedagogical tools using storytelling in the digital world. This descriptive qualitative study reports the benefits, challenges, and solutions of digital story use in nursing education. Twelve nurse educators from Europe and the United States who had published or demonstrated use of digital stories in the classroom were recruited and interviewed. Data analysis revealed themes about the benefits and challenges associated with digital story use. The benefits identified were a greater depth of discussion, making points, engaging students, and promoting reflection and empathy. Development of critical thinking and the use of information technology skills were also identified. Challenges associated with digital stories included finding an appropriate digital story, legal issues involved, and the ability to assess student learning. Time in class to show digital stories and recognition of intended points by students were also uncovered. Solutions to some of these issues are also presented. This study revealed that the new pedagogy of digital stories engages students in the learning process.

Non-spatial context-driven search.

Contexts that predict characteristics of search targets can guide attention by triggering attentional control settings for the characteristics. However, this context-driven search has most commonly been found in the spatial dimension. The present study explored the context-driven search when shape contexts predict the color of targets: non-spatial context-driven search. It has been demonstrated that context-driven search requires cognitive resources, and evidence of non-spatial context-driven search is found when there is an increase in cognitive resources for the shape/color associations. Thus, the scarcity of evidence for non-spatial context-driven search is potentially because the context-driven search requires more cognitive resources for shape/color associations than for spatial/spatial associations. In the current study, we violated a previously 100% consistent shape/color association with two mismatch trials to encourage allocation of cognitive resources to the shape/color association. Three experiments showed that the shape-predicted color cues captured attention more than the non-predicted color cues, indicating that shape contexts triggered attentional control settings for a color predicted by the contexts. Furthermore, the shape contexts guided attention to the predicted color only after the two mismatch trials, suggesting that expression of the non-spatial context-driven search may require cognitive resources more than the spatial context-driven search.

Strengthening spatial reasoning: elucidating the attentional and neural mechanisms associated with mental rotation skill development.

Spatial reasoning is a critical skill in many everyday tasks and in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines. The current study examined how training on mental rotation (a spatial reasoning task) impacts the completeness of an encoded representation and the ability to rotate the representation. We used a multisession, multimethod design with an active control group to determine how mental rotation ability impacts performance for a trained stimulus category and an untrained stimulus category. Participants in the experimental group (n = 18) showed greater improvement than the active control group (n = 18) on the mental rotation tasks. The number of saccades between objects decreased and saccade amplitude increased after training, suggesting that participants in the experimental group encoded more of the object and possibly had more complete mental representations after training. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data revealed distinct neural activation associated with mental rotation, notably in the right motor cortex and right lateral occipital cortex. These brain areas are often associated with rotation and encoding complete representations, respectively. Furthermore, logistic regression revealed that activation in these brain regions during the post-training scan significantly predicted training group assignment. Overall, the current study suggests that effective mental rotation training protocols should aim to improve the encoding and manipulation of mental representations.

FDA Initiative for Drug Facts Label for Over-the-Counter Naloxone.

BACKGROUND: The opioid crisis highlights the need to increase access to naloxone, possibly through regulatory approval for over-the-counter sales. To address industry-perceived barriers to such access, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed a model drug facts label for such sales to assess whether consumers understood the key statements for safe and effective use. METHODS: In this label-comprehension study, we conducted individual structured interviews with 710 adults and adolescents, including 430 adults who use opioids and their family and friends. Eight primary end points were developed to assess user comprehension of each of the key steps in the label. Each of these end points included a prespecified target threshold ranging from 80 to 90% that was evaluated through a comparison of the lower boundary of the 95% exact confidence interval. RESULTS: The results for performance on six primary end points met or exceeded thresholds, including the steps "Check for a suspected overdose" (threshold, 85%; point estimate [PE], 95.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 94.0 to 97.1) and "Give the first dose" (threshold, 85%; PE, 98.2%; 95% CI, 96.9 to 99.0). The lower boundaries for four other primary end points ranged from 88.8 to 94.0%. One exception was comprehension of "Call 911 immediately," but this instruction closely approximated the target of 90% (PE, 90.3%; 95% CI, 87.9 to 92.4). Another exception was comprehension of the composite step of "Check, give, and call 911 immediately" (threshold, 85%; PE, 81.1%; 95% CI, 78.0 to 83.9). CONCLUSIONS: Consumers met thresholds for sufficient understanding of six of eight components of the instructions in the drug facts label for naloxone use and came close on two others. Overall, the FDA found that the model label was adequate for use in the development of a naloxone product intended for over-the-counter sales.

Impact of relative and absolute values on selective attention.

Valuable stimuli receive attentional priority. However, it is unknown whether the mechanism of the attentional priority is based on relative (e.g., higher) or absolute (e.g., 45 points) values. Therefore, we manipulated the relative and absolute values independently in a modified value-driven attentional capture paradigm. In the training phase, where associative learning occurs between color and reward value, two test target colors were each presented with another different target color (reference target colors) in separate context blocks. Therefore, each test target color had different reference points. In the test phase, the two test target colors were used as singleton distractor colors. In the training phase of Experiment 1, the absolute reward value of the test target colors was the same, but one had a higher value than its reference target color and the other had a lower value. In the test phase, the high relative value color distractor captured attention more, suggesting that the relative value of stimuli influenced selective attention. In Experiment 2 the relative value of the test target colors was the same, but the absolute value was higher for one. The high and low absolute value color distractors captured attention equally in the test phase, indicating little impact of the absolute value on selective attention. These findings suggest that the relative value, rather than absolute value, plays a critical role in the allocation of attention. Accordingly, the present study suggests that prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, Econometrica, 47 (2), 363-391, 1979) can be extended to earlier cognitive stages such as selective attention.

Not all information in visual working memory is forgotten equally.

To improve maintenance of task-relevant information in visual working memory (VWM), previously encoded, but no longer relevant, information can be suppressed or forgotten. However, it is unclear whether a cue directing attention to a subset of stimuli leads to complete forgetting for non-cued stimuli. The current study utilized a novel method of testing to-be forgotten information to determine if the effectiveness of forgetting differs depending on the type of encoded stimuli. Participants performed a directed forgetting change detection task, and importantly, the changed stimulus could be a novel stimulus or a to-be-forgotten stimulus. Stimulus type (colors, objects, or shapes) was manipulated across two experiments. Results suggest that a cue benefits memory for to-be-remembered information, but performance is not equivalent to never encoding to-be-forgotten information. Furthermore, the type of encoded information impacts the extent of forgetting.

Visual search with varying versus consistent attentional templates: Effects on target template establishment, comparison, and guidance.

Attentional templates can be represented in visual working memory (VWM) when the target varies from trial-to-trial and can be represented in long-term memory (LTM) when the target is consistent during trial runs. Given that attentional templates can be represented in either VWM or LTM, are there any differences in how these representations impact visual search when targets are consistent compared with varying? The current study tested the consistent template hypothesis, which predicts faster performance with a consistent target compared with a varying target. Experiment 1 examined whether consistent targets could lead to consistent templates that would improve template establishment, guidance, and/or comparison of the template to search items. Search response time was faster for consistent targets, and consistent targets produced faster comparison processes, but not more efficient guidance. Experiment 2 examined the consistent template restoration hypothesis, which predicts faster template establishment and comparison processes for a previously encountered consistent target. Experiment 2 replicated the consistent template hypothesis and supported the consistent template restoration hypothesis. These studies demonstrate that although attentional guidance is similar with varying and consistent attentional templates, consistent templates improve search performance by speeding template establishment and comparison processes. (PsycINFO Database Record

Attending globally or locally: Incidental learning of optimal visual attention allocation.

Attention allocation determines the information that is encoded into memory. Can participants learn to optimally allocate attention based on what types of information are most likely to change? The current study examined whether participants could incidentally learn that changes to either high spatial frequency (HSF) or low spatial frequency (LSF) Gabor patches were more probable and to use this incidentally learned probability information to bias attention during encoding. Participants detected changes in orientation in arrays of 6 Gabor patches: 3 HSF and 3 LSF. For half of the participants, an HSF patch changed orientation on 75% of the trials, and for the other half, an LSF patch changed orientation on 75% of the trials. Experiment 1 demonstrated a change probability effect and an attention allocation effect. Specifically, change detection performance was highest for the probable-change type, and participants learned to use a global spread of attention (fixating between Gabor patches) when LSF patches were most likely to change and to use a local allocation of attention (fixating directly on Gabor patches) when HSF patches were most likely to change. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated these effects and demonstrated that an internal monitoring system is sufficient for these effects. That is, the effects do not require explicit feedback or point rewards. This study demonstrates that incidental learning of probability information can affect the allocation of attention during encoding and can therefore affect what information is stored in visual working memory. (PsycINFO Database Record

Assessment of the Effects of MPTP and Paraquat on Dopaminergic Neurons and Microglia in the Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta of C57BL/6 Mice.

The neurotoxicity of paraquat dichloride (PQ) was assessed in two inbred strains of 9- or 16-week old male C57BL/6 mice housed in two different laboratories and compared to the effects of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). PQ was administered by intraperitoneal injections; either once (20 mg/kg) or twice (10 mg/kg) weekly for 3 weeks, while MPTP-HCl was injected 4 times on a single day (20 mg/kg/dose). Brains were collected 8, 16, 24, 48, 96 or 168 hours after the last PQ treatment, and 48 or 168 hours after MPTP treatment. Dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) were identified by antibodies to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH+) and microglia were identified using Iba-1 immunoreactivity. The total number of TH+ neurons and the number of resting and activated microglia in the SNpc at 168 hours after the last dose were estimated using model- or design-based stereology, with investigators blinded to treatment. In a further analysis, a pathologist, also blinded to treatment, evaluated the SNpc and/or striatum for loss of TH+ neurons (SNpc) or terminals (striatum), cell death (as indicated by amino cupric silver uptake, TUNEL and/or caspase 3 staining) and neuroinflammation (as indicated by Iba-1 and/or GFAP staining). PQ, administered either once or twice weekly to 9- or 16-week old mice from two suppliers, had no effect on the number of TH+ neurons or microglia in the SNpc, as assessed by two groups, each blinded to treatment, using different stereological methods. PQ did not induce neuronal cell loss or degeneration in the SNpc or striatum. Additionally, there was no evidence of apoptosis, microgliosis or astrogliosis. In MPTP-treated mice, the number of TH+ neurons in the SNpc was significantly decreased and the number of activated microglia increased. Histopathological assessment found degenerating neurons/terminals in the SNpc and striatum but no evidence of apoptotic cell death. MPTP activated microglia in the SNpc and increased the number of astrocytes in the SNpc and striatum.

Pharmacokinetic Properties and Human Use Characteristics of an FDA-Approved Intranasal Naloxone Product for the Treatment of Opioid Overdose.

Parenteral naloxone has been approved to treat opiate overdose for over 4 decades. Intranasal naloxone, administered "off label" using improvised devices, has been widely used by both first responders and the lay public to treat overdose. However, these improvised devices require training for effective use, and the recommended volumes (2 to 4 mL) exceed those considered optimum for intranasal administration. The present study compared the pharmacokinetic properties of intranasal naloxone (2 to 8 mg) delivered in low volumes (0.1 to 0.2 mL) using an Aptar Unit-Dose device to an approved (0.4 mg) intramuscular dose. A parallel study assessed the ease of use of this device in a simulated overdose situation. All doses of intranasal naloxone resulted in plasma concentrations and areas under the curve greater than those observed following the intramuscular dose; the time to reach maximum plasma concentrations was not different following intranasal and intramuscular administration. Plasma concentrations of naloxone were dose proportional between 2 and 8 mg and independent of whether drug was administered to 1 or both nostrils. In a study using individuals representative of the general population, >90% were able to perform both critical tasks (inserting nozzle into a nostril and pressing plunger) needed to deliver a simulated dose of naloxone without prior training. Based on both pharmacokinetic and human use studies, a 4-mg dose delivered in a single device (0.1 mL) was selected as the final product. This product can be used by first responders and the lay public, providing an important and potentially life-saving intervention for victims of an opioid overdose.