Modeling Dimensionality of Bilingual Kindergarteners' Language Knowledge in Spanish and English.

PURPOSE: This study used structural equation modeling to investigate the dimensionality of language in Spanish-English bilingual kindergartners. Five theoretical models were compared, including (a) a unidimensional model; (b) a two-dimensional model by language (Spanish, English); (c) a three-dimensional model by domain of language (phonology, semantics, morphosyntax); (d) a second-order model organized first by language (Spanish, English), with each language dimension comprising three domain-specific dimensions (phonology, semantics, morphosyntax); and (e) a six-dimensional model with freely covarying language-specific domains. METHOD: Participants included 238 Spanish-English bilingual kindergartens, as identified by parent report of current language exposure and direct language measures. All participants completed a battery of phonology, semantics, and morphosyntactic test items in English and in Spanish. RESULTS: The six-dimensional covarying model constrained by domain and language provided the best fit for the data, with six separate factors for phonology, morphosyntax, and semantics in English and Spanish. The excellent model fit is supported by findings of a χ2 to df (degrees of freedom) ratio < 2 with no significance, comparative fit index > .95, standardized root-mean-square residual < .08, and root-mean-square error of approximation values ≤ .05. CONCLUSIONS: Results support emergent theories of bilingual language development. Application of the results to the evaluation and intervention of oral language abilities in bilingual children entering the formal education setting are considered. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25843846.

Validation of the Mediated Learning Observation Instrument Among Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder in Dynamic Assessment.

PURPOSE: In this validation study, we examined the factor structure of the mediated learning observation (MLO) used during the teaching phase of dynamic assessment. As an indicator of validity, we evaluated whether the MLO factor structure was consistent across children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). METHOD: Two hundred twenty-four children (188 typically developing and 36 DLD) from kindergarten to second grade completed a 30-min individual mediated learning session on narrative production. Performance during the session was rated using the 12-item MLO by clinicians on affect, behavior, arousal, and elaboration. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to establish the factor structure and reliability of the MLO. RESULTS: Factor analysis of the MLO suggested a stable three-factor model with adequate fit indices across kindergarten and school-age samples, across both typically developing and DLD subgroups with good to excellent reliability. The final 11-item MLO (one item was removed due to low factor loading) comprises three subscales including (a) cognitive factor, (b) learning anticipation, and (c) learning engagement. CONCLUSIONS: The MLO is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing language learning skills in children with and without DLD during dynamic assessment. Practical implications and suggestions for future research addressing the utilization of MLO in dynamic assessment are provided.

Where to start: Use of the bilingual multidimensional ability scale (B-MAS) to identify developmental language disorder (DLD) in bilingual children.

PURPOSE: The identification of developmental language disorder (DLD) is challenging for clinicians who assess bilinguals. This paper introduces a protocol-based approach, the Bilingual Multidimensional Ability Scale (B-MAS), for expert raters to identify DLD in bilinguals. METHOD: Three bilingual speech-language pathologists (SLPs) reviewed 166 Spanish-English bilingual children's profiles, which included performance on direct (morphosyntax, semantics, and narrative tasks) and indirect (parent/teacher survey) measures in both languages. A multidimensional scale (0-5) was adopted to rate children's performance. A diagnosis of DLD was made if at least two raters assigned a summary rating of ≤2. RESULT: Analysis of the scores on the B-MAS resulted in the identification of 21 children as having DLD. Though different strategies were employed to make decisions, the three SLPs demonstrated high inter-rater agreement across different ratings (intraclass correlation coefficient values ranged from .83 to .90). CONCLUSION: For bilingual populations that are understudied and for which gold standards of assessment are not available, the B-MAS can be adopted as a starting point to study DLD or as a reference standard to develop new assessment tools in that population. Clinically, this protocol could be tailored and evaluated by a group of SLPs serving a large population of a particular bilingual group for diagnostic purposes.

Neural specificity for semantic and syntactic processing in Spanish-English bilingual children.

Brain development for language processing is associated with neural specialization of left perisylvian pathways, but this has not been investigated in young bilinguals. We examined specificity for syntax and semantics in early exposed Spanish-English speaking children (N = 65, ages 7-11) using an auditory sentence judgement task in English, their dominant language of use. During functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), the morphosyntax task elicited activation in left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the semantic task elicited activation in left posterior middle temporal gyrus (MTG). Task comparisons revealed specialization in left superior temporal (STG) for morphosyntax and left MTG and angular gyrus for semantics. Although skills in neither language were uniquely related to specialization, skills in both languages were related to engagement of the left MTG for semantics and left IFG for syntax. These results are consistent with models suggesting a positive cross-linguistic interaction in those with higher language proficiency.

An Exploration of the Nature of Vocabulary Change Following Language and Literacy Together Intervention.

PURPOSE: This exploratory study evaluates how bilingual first graders' vocabulary use in narrative changed after a Spanish-language intervention that focuses on connection between language and literacy. METHOD: Ten Spanish-English bilingual first graders produced three English and three Spanish narratives based on the Test of Narrative Language protocol pre- and postintervention. All samples were transcribed. Based on comprehensive word inventories, all words produced by the children were identified as being core words; Tiers 1, 2, and 3 words; and/or cognates in both languages. We also coded all utterances for use of internal state terms (ISTs). We evaluated total and unique production of these kinds of words. RESULTS: Postintervention children increased their total number of cognates and ISTs across languages. They also increased the unique core words, Tier 1 words, and cognates postintervention. They also used more of each of these kinds of words in Spanish-the language of intervention-than in English. CONCLUSIONS: Children make qualitative changes to their vocabulary postintervention. There is greater change in the use of core words and Tier 1 words in Spanish. These increases in productivity and variability were indicated by the number of unique words added to the children's repertoires in ways that supported narrative production.

Exploring Assumptions of the Bilingual Delay in Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder.

PURPOSE: Bilingual children are both over- and under-identified with developmental language disorder (DLD). We propose that this may be a function of monolingual approaches that fail to consider the dynamic nature of bilingualism as well as assumptions of bilingual delay. We explored the extent to which bilingual children with and without DLD demonstrated mixed dominance as a function of exposure to English. We document patterns of performance in bilingual children with and without DLD on the Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment or Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment-Middle Extension in Spanish, English, and their best language scores. METHOD: A total of 595 (100 with DLD) Spanish-English bilingual children between the ages of 5 and 12 years were included in the analyses. We employed logistic regression to evaluate the probability of demonstrating mixed dominance across semantics and morphosyntax in Spanish and English by ability status. We then evaluated the association between English exposure and performance in Spanish, English, and the best language on semantics and morphosyntax measures. RESULTS: There were similar typically developing and DLD probabilities of Spanish or English dominance associated with high degrees of Spanish and English exposure. Mixed dominance was associated with both ability and exposure. Children with DLD demonstrated more mixed dominance from 0% to 60% English exposure. The patterns of mixed dominance were similar by ability when they had more than 60% exposure to English. There were significant associations between single language testing in Spanish and English with percentage of exposure for children with and without DLD. When the best score (comparing English and Spanish) was used, there were no significant associations with exposure for semantics or morphosyntax. CONCLUSIONS: These results inform researchers and clinicians about the nature of bilingual proficiency in children with and without DLD. Mixed dominance was observed in both groups but with different patterns at lower levels of English exposure in children with and without DLD. We also see that when children's best score is considered, all differences in performance along the bilingual continuum are related to ability not language exposure. This has implications for how to consider children's language test scores in making clinical decisions about bilingual children. PRESENTATION VIDEO: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23929470.

A cross-linguistic approach to treating speech sound disorders in bilingual children.

The present study explores generalisation of production skills across languages when treating speech sound disorders in bilingual children. Early work suggests that treating shared sounds across languages may facilitate cross-linguistic generalisation. Thus, selecting shared sounds across languages as targets may have clinical advantages. In this study, we asked if cross-linguistic generalisation can be facilitated for targets using shared sounds in bilingual children with phonological delays from Spanish (L1) into English (L2) when treating only the L1. Two Spanish-English bilingual children between the ages of 5;0-5;3 with speech sound disorders participated in an intervention with shared sounds as targets. Each child received two sessions per week of therapy that included both linguistically-based and motor-based approaches. Accuracy of targets was assessed within and across languages using a single-subject case design. Results show increased accuracy of targets and generalisation of sounds across languages when treatment was administered only in the L1. Specific growth varied per target and child. The implications affect how we select treatment targets in bilingual children. Future studies should explore additional ways to select targets to increase generalisation of skills and replicate with additional participants.

Semantic Difficulty for Bilingual Children: Effects of Age, Language Exposure, and Language Ability.

PURPOSE: Semantic tasks evaluate dimensions of children's lexical-semantic knowledge. However, the relative ease of semantic task completion depends on individual differences in developmental and language experience factors. The purpose of this study was to evaluate how language experience and language ability impact semantic task difficulty in English for school-age Spanish-English bilingual children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). METHOD: Participants included 232 Spanish-English bilingual children in second through fifth grade with (n = 35) and without (n = 197) DLD. Data included children's performance on the English Semantics subtest of the Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment-Middle Extension Field Test Version (BESA-ME), age of English acquisition, and percent English language exposure. Task difficulty, a measurement of the relative ease of task completion, was calculated for six semantic task types included on the BESA-ME. Multilevel regression modeling was conducted to estimate longitudinal growth trajectories for each semantic task type. RESULTS: Results showed that language ability and grade level drive semantic task difficulty for all task types, and children with DLD experienced greater difficulty on all task types compared to their typically developing peers. Longitudinally, semantic task difficulty decreased for all children, regardless of language ability, indicating that semantic task types became easier over time. While children made gains on all semantic tasks, the growth rate of task difficulty was not equal across task types, where some task types showed slower growth compared with others. English language exposure emerged as a significant predictor of semantic task difficulty while age of acquisition was not a significant factor. CONCLUSIONS: This study clarifies developmental profiles of lexical-semantic performance in bilingual children with and without DLD and supports clinical decision-making regarding children's English language learning.

From a Distance: Comparison of In-Person and Virtual Assessments With Adult-Child Dyads From Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds.

PURPOSE: Our proof-of-concept study tested the feasibility of virtual testing using child assessments that were originally validated for in-person testing only. METHOD: Ten adult-child dyads were assigned to complete both in-person and virtual tests of language, cognition, and narratives. Child participants fell between the ages of 4 and 8 years; adult participants were speech-language clinicians or researchers with experience in administering child assessments. Half of child participants were Spanish-English bilinguals, and half were monolingual English speakers. RESULTS: Results showed similar performance across in-person and virtual modalities on all assessments. Recommendations for adapting, administering, and scoring virtual measures with linguistically diverse children are discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Although additional research on virtual assessment is needed, our results open opportunities for appropriate remote assessment, particularly for bilingual children, who may not have in-person access to speech-language pathology services.

Contributions of bilingual home environment and language proficiency on children's Spanish-English reading outcomes.

This study examines the influence of language environment on language and reading skills and the cross-linguistic contributions to reading outcomes in 132 Spanish-English bilingual children ages 7-12 (52% female; 98% Hispanic). We present three major findings: children's language knowledge is separable into general (e.g., phonological awareness) and language-specific (e.g., meaning, grammar) skills; regular Spanish use positively relates to children's Spanish language and reading skills and does not limit English skills; and Spanish reading comprehension is positively associated with English reading comprehension. The model explains a significant percentage of the variance in English (R2  = .89) and Spanish (R2  = .87) reading comprehension outcomes. Findings shed light on the interdependence of Spanish and English as they relate to bilingual reading acquisition.

A Longitudinal Investigation of the Semantic Receptive-Expressive Gap in Spanish-English Bilingual Children.

Purpose: Although a semantic receptive-expressive gap appears to be a universal feature of early bilingualism, little is known about its development. We sought to determine if the magnitude of the discrepancy between receptive and expressive standard scores changed over time in bilingual children's two languages. Method: In this longitudinal study, standardized receptive and expressive semantics tests of 106 Spanish-English bilingual children with TD were taken at kindergarten and first grade in both English and Spanish. We used a multivariate analysis approach to identify interactions and main effects. Results: Although both receptive and expressive standard scores improved across the year in both languages, the magnitude of the gap was similar for both languages at both time points. However, there was greater improvement in English than in Spanish. Expressive scores at the end of the year were similar to receptive scores a year earlier. Conclusions: The magnitude of this gap remains relatively constant at kindergarten and first grade in both English and Spanish, despite overall improvements in semantic performance in both languages. There is on average roughly a one year lag between receptive and expressive semantics skills. Clinicians should take caution in interpreting receptive-expressive semantic gaps.

Contributions of Oral Narrative Skills to English Reading in Spanish-English Latino/a Dual Language Learners.

PURPOSE: The study examined the contributions of Spanish and English oral narrative skills to English reading among 95 early elementary dual language learners (DLLs) from Spanish-speaking homes in the United States. This sample of first- and third-grade DLL children attended Spanish-English dual language immersion programs and received language and literacy instruction in both English and Spanish. METHOD: All participants completed a storytelling task in both languages and two English reading tests in decoding and reading comprehension. The story narratives were analyzed for microstructures (number of different new words, lexical diversity [D], mean length of utterance, subordination index [SI]) using the Computerized Language ANalysis program. The narrative samples were also evaluated for macrostructures (i.e., discourse-level features) using the Narrative Scoring Scheme. RESULTS: Grade, English D, and Spanish SI significantly predicted English reading. Grade level was the strongest predictor of the three for both decoding and comprehension. However, Spanish SI was more robust than English D for decoding whereas English D was a stronger predictor than Spanish SI for comprehension. CONCLUSIONS: Young DLL children's oral narrative skills in English as well as in their home language Spanish contributed to their English reading outcomes. The study further specified the contributions of narrative elements to different reading skills. Microstructural elements appeared to play a stronger role in English reading than macrostructural elements for DLLs in dual language programs in early elementary grades. The results provided support for the simple view of reading and the linguistic interdependence hypothesis. The results also implicated that maintaining young DLL children's home language skills may be beneficial, rather than harmful, to their English reading development.

English BESA Morphosyntax Performance Among Spanish-English Bilinguals Who Use African American English.

Purpose This study examined the use of African American English (AAE) among a group of young Latinx bilingual children and the accuracy of the English Morphosyntax subtest of the Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment (BESA) in classifying these children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). Method Children (N = 81) between the ages of 4;0 and 7;1 (years;months) completed a narrative task and the BESA Morphosyntax subtest. We identified DLD based on four reference measures. We compared specific dialectal features used by children with DLD and their typically developing peers. We also conducted an overall analysis of the BESA subtest and subsequent item-level analyses to determine if particular items were more likely to contribute to the correct classification of the participants. Results Children with DLD used three AAE forms in their narrative samples (subject-verb agreement, zero copula/auxiliary, or zero past tense) more frequently than their typically developing peers. Area-under-the-curve estimates for the cloze, sentence repetition, and composite scores of the BESA indicated that the assessment identified children with DLD in the sample with good sensitivity. Item analysis indicated that the majority of items (84%) significantly differentiated typically developing children and children with DLD. Conclusions The BESA English Morphosyntax subtest appears to be a valid tool for the identification of DLD in children exposed to AAE and Spanish. We provide practical implications and suggestions for future research addressing the identification of DLD among children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Phonological predictors of nonword repetition performance in bilingual children.

INTRODUCTION: Previous research (Gibson et al., 2015; Summers, Bohman, Gillam, Peña & Bedore, 2010) has suggested an advantage in Spanish over English on nonword repetition tasks with Spanish-English bilingual children. However, comparing nonwords of equal syllable lengths across languages may not sufficiently account for phonological differences across languages. We compared Spanish-language nonword sets of different lengths to select a set that would be equivalent with respect to difficulty in English. We considered language-specific phonological structure and level of difficulty in evaluating nonword performance in 126 first- and second-grade, Spanish-English bilingual children. We predicted that adding 5-syllable words to the Spanish nonword set and monosyllabic words to the English set would result in comparable difficulty. METHOD: Participants repeated nonwords of increasing lengths in English of 1, 2, 3, and 4 syllables and in Spanish of 2, 3, 4, and 5 syllables. Percent phonemes correct was calculated for total sounds. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare accuracy across word lengths. RESULTS: Results indicated significant differences in overall means between languages when nonwords of equal word lengths were compared, but no significant differences in overall means when lengths of 1 - 4 syllables in English and 2 - 5 syllables in Spanish were used. Differences between languages varied at individual levels of complexity. CONCLUSIONS: The finding that level of word length affects performance may have implications for understanding the factors in clinical test development for bilingual children. Further research may benefit from assessing additional language variables and additional language combinations to extend findings.

Insights Into Category Sorting Flexibility in Bilingual Children: Results of a Cognitive Lab Study.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to explore how bilingual children shift sets to gain flexibility when forming categories. Using a cognitive lab approach focused on understanding how learners approach problems, we asked children to sort 10 sets of pictures representing common objects in two different ways and to explain their rationale for the sort. We explored the relationship between age and language use on their performance. Method Forty-six typically developing Spanish-English bilingual children (25 girls, 21 boys) participated in the study. They ranged in age from 4;0 to 10;11 (years;months). Receptive and expressive responses to a novel category sorting task were collected. Results Forty-four of the 46 children tested were able to perform the category sorting task. Within language, receptive and expressive category sorting scores were positively and significantly correlated while only expressive scores were significantly associated across languages. There were significant correlations between the sorting scores and age and language output and input. Children's ability to provide expressive responses explaining their sort strategy was moderately correlated with their language experience, especially English output. Conclusions The category sorting task proved useful in eliciting sorting behaviors and naming from the children tested. The age effect suggests that sorting may reflect their general developmental experience rather than their language-specific experience. The cognitive lab approach allowed us to understand how children shift sets and verbalize their understanding of the categorization process. Knowing how children approach this task can inform future work to develop ways to strategically select language intervention goals and document progress.

The Utility of an English Semantics Measure for Identifying Developmental Language Disorder in Spanish-English Bilinguals.

Purpose We examined the English semantic performance of three hundred twenty-seven 7- to 10-year-old Spanish-English bilinguals with (n = 66) and without (n = 261) developmental language disorder (DLD) with varying levels of English experience to classify groups. Method English semantic performance on the Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment-Middle Extension Experimental Test Version (Peña et al., 2008) was evaluated by language experience, language ability, and task type. Items that best identified DLD for children with balanced and high English experience were selected. Separately, items that best identified children with high Spanish experience were selected. Results Typically developing bilingual children performed significantly higher than their peers with DLD across semantic tasks, with differences associated with task type. Classification accuracy was fair when item selection corresponded to balanced or high level of experience in English, but poor for children with high Spanish experience. Selecting items specifically for children with high Spanish experience improved classification accuracy. Conclusions Tailoring semantic items based on children's experience is a promising direction toward organizing items on a continuum of exposure. Here, classification effectively ruled in impairment. Future work to refine semantic items that more accurately represent the continuum of exposure may help rule out language impairment.

Language and Literacy Together: Supporting Grammatical Development in Dual Language Learners With Risk for Language and Learning Difficulties.

Purpose Early Interventions in Reading (Vaughn et al., 2006), the only literacy intervention with demonstrated effectiveness for U.S. dual language learners, was enhanced to support the development of oral language (vocabulary, grammar, and narrative) and literacy, which we refer to as "Language and Literacy Together." The primary focus of this study is to understand the extent to which grammatical skills of bilinguals with risk for language and/or reading difficulties improve in the Language and Literacy Together intervention. Method Fifteen first-grade dual language learners with risk for language and/or reading difficulties participated in an enhanced version of Early Interventions in Reading in Spanish. Children completed pre- and postintervention evaluations in Spanish and English, including grammatical testing from the Bilingual English Spanish Oral Screener (Peña et al., 2008) and narrative evaluation Test of Narrative Language story prompts (Gillam & Pearson, 2004; Gillam et al., n.d.). Data from six comparison participants with typical language skills who completed pre- and posttesting demonstrate the stability of the measures. Results The intervention group made gains in English and Spanish as evidenced by significant increases in their cloze and sentence repetition accuracy on the Bilingual English Spanish Oral Screener Morphosyntax subtest. They increased productivity on their narratives in Spanish and English as indexed by mean length of utterance in words but did not make gains in their overall grammaticality. Conclusions Structured intervention that includes an emphasis on grammatical elements in the context of a broader intervention can lead to change in the production of morphosyntax evident in both elicited constructions and narrative productivity as measured by mean length of utterance in words. Additional work is needed to determine if and how cross-linguistic transfer might be achieved for these learners.

"Did I Say Cherry?" Error Patterns on a Blocked Cyclic Naming Task for Bilingual Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder.

Purpose Using a blocked cyclic picture-naming task, we compared accuracy and error patterns across languages for Spanish-English bilingual children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). Method Pictured stimuli were manipulated for semantic similarity across two (Same and Mixed) category contexts. Children's productions were scored off-line for accuracy, error frequency, and error type. Results Typically developing children were more accurate and produced fewer errors than their peers with DLD; however, this was moderated by task language and semantic context. Children were generally more accurate when naming pictures in English compared to Spanish and in the Mixed-category context compared to the Same-category context. Analyses of error types further showed that children with less English language exposure specifically produced more nonresponses in English than in Spanish. Children with DLD produced more of each error type than their typically developing peers, particularly in Spanish. Conclusions Regardless of language ability, bilingual children demonstrated greater difficulty with lexical retrieval for pictured items in the semantically related context than in the unrelated context. However, bilingual children with DLD produced more errors of all types than is typical for children developing more than one language. Their greater error rates are not secondary to limited second language exposure but instead reflect deficits inherent to the nature of language impairment. Results from this study are discussed using a framework of semantic constraint, where we propose that because bilingual children with DLD have impoverished semantic networks, and this knowledge insufficiently constrains activation for lexical selection, thereby increasing error production.

Identifying Developmental Language Disorder in School age Bilinguals: Semantics, Grammar, and Narratives.

Children with Developmental language disorder (DLD) have particular difficulty learning language despite otherwise general normal development. When school age bilingual children struggle with language, a common question is if the difficulties they present reflect lack of ability or lack of language experience. To address the question of identification of DLD in the context of bilingualism, we explore the diagnostic accuracy of measures administered in two languages. The Bilingual English Spanish Assessment Middle Extension (BESA-ME) assesses semantics and morphosyntax and the Test of Narrative Language (TNL) assesses comprehension and production of narratives. These measures were administered to 112 second graders (19 with DLD) and 64 fourth graders (7 with DLD). We explored the classification accuracy of each of these measures alone and in combination using receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The ROC curve illustrates diagnostic classification of a measure at various cutpoints. We compared the extent to which measures in English, Spanish, or best language account for area under the (ROC) curve. Discriminant function analysis using the best indicator (Spanish, English, best language) from each type of measure (semantics, morphosyntax, narrative) in combination demonstrate classification accuracy above 80%. Morphosyntax in the best language was the strongest predictor of DLD for second grade children. In fourth grade, the three measures contributed more equally in predicting DLD.

Los niños con trastornos de desarrollo del lenguaje tienen dificultad especial para aprender el lenguaje a pesar de tener un desarrollo general dentro de los límites normales. Cuando los niños de edad escolar no aprenden el idioma de la misma manera que sus compañeros nos preguntamos si esto se debe a un trastorno o falta de experiencia con el idioma. Para entender cómo identificar el trastorno del lenguaje en el contexto bilingüe, exploramos la precisión diagnóstica de pruebas que se administran en los dos idiomas del niño bilingüe. The Bilingual English Spanish Assessment Middle Extension (BESA-ME) (Prueba del Lenguaje Bilingüe en Español e Inglés ­ extensión media) se enfoca en la semántica y la morfosintaxis y del Test of Narrative Language (TNL) (Prueba de Lenguaje Narrativo) que evalúa la comprensión y expresión de la narrativa. Se dieron estas pruebas a 112 estudiantes de segundo grado (19 con trastorno del lenguaje) y 64 estudiantes de cuarto grado (7 con trastorno del lenguaje) . Usamos la característica del operador del receptor (COR) para calcular la precisión de las dos pruebas individuales y en combinación. La curva del COR ilustra la precisión diagnóstica de una prueba en base de varios puntos de corte en la curva. Comparamos la precisión de las medidas en español, inglés o en la mejor de los dos lenguas, en base del área bajo la curva COR.El análisis de la función de discriminación, usando el indicador más informativo (español, inglés, o el mejor idioma) de cada área evaluada (semántica, morfosintaxis, narrativa), resultó en un índice de precisión arriba del 80% correcto. El rendimiento en el área de morfosintaxis en el mejor idioma es el indicador más preciso para los niños de segundo grado. Para los niños de cuarto grado, los tres indicadores contribuyeron igualmente a la precisión diagnóstica para el trastorno en el desarrollo de lenguaje.

Longitudinal evidence for simultaneous bilingual language development with shifting language dominance, and how to explain it.

Theories of how language works have shifted from rule-like competence accounts to more skill-like incremental learning accounts. Under these, people acquire language incrementally, through practice, and may even lose it incrementally as they acquire competing mappings. Incremental learning implies that (1) a bilingual's abilities in their languages should depend on how much they practice each (not merely age of acquisition), and (2) using an L2 more could cause a bilingual to gradually 'unlearn' their L1. Using timed picture naming and vocabulary measures, we tracked 139 children for several years as they transitioned from mostly-Spanish homes to mostly-English schools. Following their increased English use, many became more proficient in English than Spanish around the third grade, demonstrating continual learning. But their Spanish also improved, showing that L1-attrition is not inevitable. Incremental learning explains both co-improvement and L1-attrition as consequences of experience-driven learning: improvement from continuing L1 use can offset competitive unlearning.