Combination of narrow and wide bandwidth knowledge of performance in the acquisition of a complex sports motor skill.

OBJECTIVES: This study tested the effects of combining two bandwidth knowledge of performance (KP) on a complex sports motor skill. METHOD: Twenty-two elementary students were divided into combined wide and narrow bandwidth KP (WNG) and control group (CG). The task was the volleyball serve, whose goal was to hit the bull's eye center of a target lying on the floor on the opposite side of the court. The study was composed of a pre-test, acquisition phase and retention test, and had three measures (pre-test, intermediate test, and retention test) with 15 serves recorded each. The acquisition phase consisted of 252 trials. The WNG had a wide bandwidth KP in the first half of the acquisition phase and a narrow one in the second. The CG received KP in all trials. The effects of bandwidth KP were analyzed separately to infer parameters and skill structure learning. RESULTS: Both groups improved the skill structure from the first to the intermediate test, but only WNG also improved on the retention test. The parameters accuracy improved only on retention compared to the pre-test and intermediate test but had no difference between groups. CONCLUSION: Providing information using the bandwidth KP led to an initial engagement and prioritization of skill structure learning.

Expectation of Teaching and Self-Controlled KR in Motor Skills Acquisition: Are There Additive Effects?

Purpose: Recent evidence suggests learning a motor skill with the expectation of teaching it enhances motor learning. The mechanisms underlying this effect seem to be similar to those of another motor learning condition, the self-control of knowledge of results (KR). Considering the similarities between the mechanisms that underlie these conditions, we aimed to investigate the learning effects obtained through expected teaching and self-controlled conditions, and whether these effects would be additive. Methods: Participants practiced a dart-throwing task under one of the following conditions: a) expecting to teach the skill; b) controlling the KR request; c) combining the two previous conditions; and d) receiving KR in a yoked condition with self-controlled participants. In acquisition phase, motivational aspects, strategies for requesting KR and aspects related to the expectation of teaching were assessed according to each condition. Results: Participants with control over KR and/or with the expectation of teaching the skill showed superior learning of the task compared to the control condition. However, the combination of the experimental conditions did not result in additive learning benefits. Increased perceived competence was found in expecting to teach, self-controlled and combined conditions, compared to the yoked group. Additionally, expecting to teach also affected the way and the frequency learners requested KR. Conclusions: Our findings provide important insights toward understanding the effects of expecting to teach, in addition to demonstrating that expecting to teach affects self-controlled KR scheduling and its use during motor skill acquisition.

Contextual Factors and Motor Skills in Indigenous Amazon Forest and Urban Indigenous Children.

This study investigated the contextual factors, motor performance, and body mass index across indigenous land children, indigenous urban children, and non-indigenous urban children. A number of 153 children, both sexes (71 girls, 46.4%), from 8 to 10 years were assessed. The Test of Motor Gross Development-3 was utilized. Indigenous land children showed higher motor performance ( η2ρ = 0.37 and η2ρ = 0.19 locomotor and object control, respectively) than indigenous urban children (p < 0.03) and non-indigenous urban children (p < 0.01); Indigenous urban children showed higher motor performance than non-indigenous urban children (p < 0.01). Body mass index was similar across groups ( η2ρ = 0,02; p = 0.15). Motor performance of indigenous land children was explained by the contextual factors that lead to a more active lifestyle, unsupervised free time, and play outside. In urban areas, behavior was similar, and although indigenous urban children kept some play tradition, it was not strong enough to be a protective factor for the motor performance.

Planning and execution of handball goalkeepers training: a descriptive study in youth categories teams in Brazil

Abstract Aim: This study aimed to describe how specific training for goalkeepers of youth handball teams is planned and executed in Brazil. Methods: This cross-sectional descriptive and quantitative study was based on information from 134 coaches responsible for specific training of handball goalkeepers for youth (under 12 - U12; U14; U16; and U18) teams. The selection of participants was non-randomly for convenience, using the virtual snowball method. The information was obtained through an online self-completion questionnaire carried out by the Google Forms platform. The questionnaire data were tabulated and assessed using the SPSS statistical program, and the information was presented using descriptive statistics. Results: The results show that specific training of goalkeepers occurs in 71.1% of youth handball teams. About the structure of the specific training session, most of it is performed 1 or 2 times a week (70.9%), lasting from 25 to 60 min (73.9%) and given by the team's leading coaches (77.6%). More than half of the participants stated that the training session occurs with the goalkeepers and the person in charge (55.2%). Most participants (69.4%) stated that the teams analyze and assess the goalkeepers' performance, and the training planning takes place weekly (39.6%). Conclusion: This data provides essential information that partially fills gaps in the literature and allows researchers and coaches to reflect on their practices, considering the importance of planning specific training for goalkeepers.

O volume de prática em ginástica artística influencia o desempenho das habilidades motoras fundamentais / The volume of practice in artistic gymnastics influences the performance of fundamental motor skills / El volumen de práctica en gimnasia artística influye en el desempeño de las habilidades motoras fundamentales

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar o volume de prá-tica em ginástica artística no desempenho de habilidades motoras fun-damentais. Para tal, 22 ginastas (idade média=8,9 ±1,54) foram divididas em grupo escola de esportes e grupo equipe. A avaliação do desempe-nho motor foi realizada pelo TGMD-2. Os resultados, analisados pelos testes de Mann-Whitney e a análise qui-quadrado, indicaram desempe-nho superior do grupo equipe em habilidades fundamentais locomoto-ras, bem como no quociente motor. Conclui-se que o volume de prática de ginástica artística pode beneficiar o desempenho de habilidades fun-damentais locomotoras, mas não de controle de objetos. Assim, parece haver uma relação de especificidade quanto às categorias de habilida-des praticadas na ginástica artística versus habilidades fundamentais desenvolvidas (AU)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the volume of practice in artistic gymnastics on the motor performance of fundamental skills. For this, 22 gymnasts (mean age = 8.9 ± 1.54) were divided into a sports school group and a team group. The assessment of motor performance was performed by TGMD-2. The results, analyzed by the Mann-Whitney tests and the chi-square analysis, indicated superior performance of the team group in fundamental locomotor skills, as well as in the motor quotient. As conclusion, the volume of practice in artistic gymnastics may benefit the performance of locomotor fundamental skills, but not object control skills. Thus, there seems to be a relationship of specificity regarding the categories of skills practiced in artistic gymnastics versus fundamental skills developed (AU).

El objetivo del presente estudio fue investigar el volumen de práctica en gimnasia artística sobre el rendimiento motor de habilidades fundamentales. Para ello, 22 gimnastas (edad media = 8,9 ± 1,54) se dividieron en un grupo de escuela deportiva y un grupo de equipo. La evaluación del rendimiento motor fue realizada por TGMD-2. Se concluye que el volumen de práctica de gimnasia artística puede beneficiar el desempeño de las habilidades locomotoras fundamentales, pero no el control de objetos. Por lo tanto, parece haber una relación de especificidad con respecto a las categorías de habilidades practicadas en gimnasia artística versus habilidades fundamentales desarrolladas (AU)

Oportunidades de estimulação motora em ambientes domiciliares do Amazonas e fatores associados / Opportunities for motor stimulation in home environments of Amazonas and associated factors / Oportunidades de estimulación motora en ambientes domiciliarios de Amazonas y factores asociados

O objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar as oportunidades de estimulação motora em ambientes domiciliares e fatores associados em crianças de Parintins/Amazonas. Participaram 300 pais/responsáveis por crianças da cidade de Parintins/Amazonas. Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development foi utilizado para avaliar oportunidades de estimulação motora. A prevalência de baixa estimulação motora foi 78% maior nas casas em que moravam quatro ou mais adultos (RP: 1,78; IC95%: 1,07-2,87); mães com o ensino fundamental (RP: 15,93; IC95%:2,45-17,50) e ensino médio (RP: 10,07; IC95%: 1,46-54,01) fornecem baixa estimulação motora; e crianças do sexo masculino apresentaram maior probabilidade de baixa estimulação motora (RP: 1,56; IC95%: 1,09-1,94). Identificamos que lares nessa região não ofertam oportunidades de estimulação motora adequada para as crianças (AU)

The objective was to analyze the opportunities for motor stimulation of home environments and associated factors in children from Parintins/Amazonas. Participants included 300 parents/guardians of children from the city of Parintins/ Amazonas participated. Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development was used to assess opportunities for motor stimulation. The prevalence of low motor stimulation was 78% higher in the homes where four or more adults lived (PR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.07-2.87); mothers with elementary school (PR: 15.93; 95% CI: 2.45-17.50) and high school (PR: 10.07; 95% CI: 1.46-54.01) provide low motor stimulation; and male children were more likely to have low motor stimulation (PR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.09-1.94). We identified that homes in this region do not offer opportunities for adequate motor stimulation for children (AU).

El objetivo fue analizar las oportunidades de estimulación motora de los ambientes domésticos y factores asociados en niños de Parintins/Amazonas. Los participantes incluyeron a 300 padres/tutores de niños de la ciudad de Parintins/Amazonas. Se utilizó Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development para evaluar las oportunidades de estimulación motora. La prevalencia de estimulación motora baja fue 78% mayor en los hogares donde vivían cuatro o más adultos (RP: 1,78; IC 95%: 1,07-2,87); las madres con escuela primaria (RP: 15,93; IC del 95%: 2,45-17,50) y secundaria (RP: 10,07; IC del 95%: 1,46-54,01) proporcionan una estimulación motora baja; y los niños varones tenían más probabilidades de tener una estimulación motora baja (PR: 1,56; IC del 95%: 1,09-1,94). Identificamos que los hogares en esta región no ofrecen oportunidades para la estimulación motora adecuada para los niños (AU).

Oportunidades de estimulação motora em ambientes domiciliares do Amazonas e fatores associados / Opportunities for motor stimulation in home environments of Amazonas and associated factors / Oportunidades de estimulación motora en ambientes domiciliarios de Amazonas y factores asociados

O objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar as oportunidades de estimulação motora em ambientes domiciliares e fatores associados em crianças de Parintins/Amazonas. Participaram 300 pais/responsáveis por crianças da cidade de Parintins/Amazonas. Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development foi utilizado para avaliar oportunidades de estimulação motora. A prevalência de baixa estimulação moto-ra foi 78% maior nas casas em que moravam quatro ou mais adultos (RP: 1,78; IC95%: 1,07-2,87); mães com o ensino fundamental (RP: 15,93; IC95%:2,45-17,50) e ensino médio (RP: 10,07; IC95%: 1,46-54,01) forne-cem baixa estimulação motora; e crianças do sexo masculino apresenta-ram maior probabilidade de baixa estimulação motora (RP: 1,56; IC95%: 1,09-1,94). Identificamos que lares nessa região não ofertam oportuni-dades de estimulação motora adequada para as crianças.

The objective was to analyze the opportunities for motor stimulation of home environments and associated factors in children from Parintins/Amazonas. Participants included 300 parents/guardians of children from the city of Parintins/ Amazonas participated. Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development was used to assess opportunities for motor stimulation. The prevalence of low motor stimulation was 78% higher in the homes where four or more adults lived (PR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.07-2.87); mothers with elementary school (PR: 15.93; 95% CI: 2.45-17.50) and high school (PR: 10.07; 95% CI: 1.46-54.01) provide low motor stimulation; and male children were more likely to have low motor stimulation (PR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.09-1.94). We identified that homes in this region do not offer opportunities for adequate motor stimulation for children.

El objetivo fue analizar las oportunidades de estimulación motora de los ambientes domésticos y factores asociados en niños de Parintins/Amazonas. Los participantes incluyeron a 300 padres/tutores de niños de la ciudad de Parintins/Amazonas. Se utilizó Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development para evaluar las oportunidades de estimulación motora. La prevalencia de estimulación motora baja fue 78% mayor en los hogares donde vivían cuatro o más adultos (RP: 1,78; IC 95%: 1,07-2,87); las madres con escuela primaria (RP: 15,93; IC del 95%: 2,45-17,50) y secundaria (RP: 10,07; IC del 95%: 1,46-54,01) proporcionan una estimulación motora baja; y los niños varones tenían más probabilidades de tener una estimulación motora baja (PR: 1,56; IC del 95%: 1,09-1,94). Identificamos que los hogares en esta región no ofrecen oportunidades para la estimulación motora adecuada para los niños.

O volume de prática em ginástica artística influencia o desempenho das habilidades motoras fundamentais / The volume of practice in artistic gymnastics influences the performance of fundamental motor skills / El volumen de práctica en gimnasia artística influye en el desempeño de las habilidades motoras fundamentales

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar o volume de prá-tica em ginástica artística no desempenho de habilidades motoras fun-damentais. Para tal, 22 ginastas (idade média=8,9 ±1,54) foram divididas em grupo escola de esportes e grupo equipe. A avaliação do desempe-nho motor foi realizada pelo TGMD-2. Os resultados, analisados pelos testes de Mann-Whitney e a análise qui-quadrado, indicaram desempe-nho superior do grupo equipe em habilidades fundamentais locomoto-ras, bem como no quociente motor. Conclui-se que o volume de prática de ginástica artística pode beneficiar o desempenho de habilidades fun-damentais locomotoras, mas não de controle de objetos. Assim, parece haver uma relação de especificidade quanto às categorias de habilida-des praticadas na ginástica artística versus habilidades fundamentais desenvolvidas.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the volume of practice in artistic gymnastics on the motor performance of fundamental skills. For this, 22 gymnasts (mean age = 8.9 ± 1.54) were divided into a sports school group and a team group. The assessment of motor performance was performed by TGMD-2. The results, analyzed by the Mann-Whitney tests and the chi-square analysis, indicated superior performance of the team group in fundamental locomotor skills, as well as in the motor quotient. As conclusion, the volume of practice in artistic gymnastics may benefit the performance of locomotor fundamental skills, but not object control skills. Thus, there seems to be a relationship of specificity regarding the categories of skills practiced in artistic gymnastics versus fundamental skills developed.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue investigar el volumen de práctica en gimnasia artística sobre el rendimiento motor de habilidades fundamentales. Para ello, 22 gimnastas (edad media = 8,9 ± 1,54) se dividieron en un grupo de escuela deportiva y un grupo de equipo. La evaluación del rendimiento motor fue realizada por TGMD-2. Se concluye que el volumen de práctica de gimnasia artística puede beneficiar el desempeño de las habilidades locomotoras fundamentales, pero no el control de objetos. Por lo tanto, parece haber una relación de especificidad con respecto a las categorías de habilidades practicadas en gimnasia artística versus habilidades fundamentales desarrolladas.

Validade e confiabilidade de escalas observacionais para exame de técnicas motoras do voleibol: saque por cima, bloqueio e defesa / Validez y confiabilidad de escalas de observación para el examen de las técnicas motoras del voleibol: saque flotante con apoyo, bloqueo y defensa / Validity and reliability of observational scales for volleyball techniques: floating serve with support, block and defense

Objetivo: Elaborar, validar e testar a confiabilidade intra e interavaliadores de escalas observacionais para exame das técnicas motoras do saque flutuante com apoio, bloqueio ofensivo simples e defesa de manchete. Método: Participaram da validação de conteúdo e testagem da confiabilidade dezesseis (16) treinadores de voleibol com mais de 10 anos de experiência. Foram avaliadas cinco ações de cada uma das técnicas motoras, executadas por cinco atletas de voleibol federados. Foi utilizado o teste Kappa Múltiplo (KM) para análise estatística da força de concordância intra e interavaliadores e o nível de significância foi de p<0.05. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que as três escalas obtiveram índices de concordância (≥87.5%) para a validade de conteúdo. Quanto à confiabilidade intra-avaliadores, os resultados demonstraram que as escalas observacionais saque, bloqueio e defesa obtiveram força de concordância boa (0.40≤KM≤0.59). A análise da confiabilidade interavaliadores das escalas observacionais saque (KM=0.75) e defesa (KM=0.66) obtiveram força de concordância muito boa e a escala observacional bloqueio (KM=0.82) obteve força de concordância excelente. Conclusões: As escalas criadas são confiáveis e adequadas para a análise das técnicas motoras saque flutuante com apoio, bloqueio ofensivo simples e defesa de manchete

Objetivo: Elaborar, validar y probar la confiabilidad intra e inter-evaluadores de escalas de observación para el examen de las técnicas motoras del saque flotante con apoyo, bloqueo ofensivo sencillo y defensa baja. Método: Participar en la validación del contenido y prueba de confiabilidad dieciséis entrenadores de voleibol con más de diez años de experiencia. Fueron evaluadas cinco acciones de cada una de las técnicas motoras, ejecutadas por cinco atletas de voleibol federados. Se utilizó la prueba Kappa Múltiple (KM) para el análisis estadístico de las fuerzas de concordancia intra e inter-evaluadores y el nivel de significancia fue de p<0.05. Resultados: Los resultados mostraron que las tres escalas obtuvieron índices de concordancia de (≥87.5%) para la validez de contenido. En cuanto a la confiabilidad intra-evaluadores, los resultados demostraron que las escalas de observación de saque, bloqueo y defensa obtuvieron fuerza de concordancia buena (0.40≤KM≤0.59). El análisis de la confiabilidad inter-evaluadores de las escalas de observación saque (KM= 0.75) y defensa (KM=0.66) obtuvieron fuerza de concordancia muy buena y la escala de observación de bloqueo (KM=0.82) obtuvo fuerza de concordancia excelente. Conclusiones: Las escalas creadas son confiables y adecuadas para el análisis de las técnicas motoras de saque flotante con apoyo, bloqueo ofensivo simple y defensa baja

Objective: Elaborate, validate and test the intra and inter-expert reliability of observational scales for the examination of the volleyball techniques, floating serve with support, simple offensive blocking and underhand defense. Methods: Sixteen coaches of the brazilian national volleyball team with more than ten years of practice in this sport, participated in the validation. Each coach evaluated five actions of each volleyball technique, performed by five federated volleyball athletes. Multiple Kappa test (KM) was used for statistical analysis of inter and intra-expert agreement strength and the significance level adopted was p <0.05. Results: The three scales obtained agreement indexes (≥87.5%) for content validity. Regarding intra-expert reliability, the results demonstrated that the observational, blocks, and defense scales had good agreement strength (0.40≤KM≤0.59). Regarding the inter-expert reliability, the observational scales serve (KM=0.75) and defense (KM=0.66) presente very good agreement strength and the observational scale block (KM=0.82) obtained excellent concordance strength. Conclusions: The scales are reliable and suitable for the analysis of motor skills floating serve with support, simple offensive blocking and underhand defense

Discrete motor skill acquisition: effect of number of visual demonstrations / Aquisição de habilidade motora discreta: efeito do número de demonstrações

ABSTRACT This experiment investigated the effect of number of visual demonstrations on the acquisition of discrete motor skill. Seventy-four college students of both sex participated in this study. The participants observed a visual model twice or ten times. In the acquisition phase, the participants were asked to throw a dart with postero-anterior movement into a circle target until reach a learning criterion. In transfer tests no difference between groups was found in the analysis of score. However, ten demonstrations were more effective than twice as regards performance of the correct pattern of movement and the number of subjects who reached the performance criterion. The results indicate a similar effect of the both number of demonstrations in the performance and dart throwing learning and both conditions influence subject's capacity to detect relevant information to perform the task.

RESUMO Este experimento investigou os efeitos do número de demonstrações na aquisição de uma habilidade motora discreta. Setenta e quatro universitários, de ambos os sexos, participaram desse estudo. Os participantes observaram um modelo duas ou dez vezes. Na fase de aquisição, os participantes foram requisitados a lançar um dardo por meio de um movimento antero-posterior em um alvo circular até atingir um desempenho critério. Não foram identificadas diferenças na aprendizagem entre os grupos na análise do escore. Contudo, dez demonstrações estimularam melhor do que duas demonstrações no que diz respeito ao desempenho do padrão correto e ao número de sujeitos que atingiram o desempenho critério. Os resultados indicam um efeito similar de ambos os números de demonstrações no desempenho e aprenizagem do arremesso de dardo de salão e que ambas as condições estimularam a capacidade dos aprendizes de detectarem informações relevantes para desempenhar a tarefa.

Motor performance in basic skills of children participants and nonparticipants of oriented sport practice / Desempenho motor em habilidades básicas de crianças participantes e não participantes de prática esportiva orientada

ABSTRACT The present study aimed to analyze the motor performance in basic skills of children participants and nonparticipants of oriented sport practice. The sample consisted of 40 children of both sexes aged between 8 and 10 years, students from a private school in Belo Horizonte. The groups were set into children that participated in some additional oriented sport practice (PEA) and children who did not participate in any oriented practice of sport besides physical education classes (GC). Performance in basic skills was assessed by the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2). The used measures were gross motor quotient, raw score of locomotor and object control subtests, and descriptive ratings. An anamnesis was applied to parents with questions about children's routine, kinds of places they go in their free time; time they play; time using electronic games; family socioeconomic level; and if the child participated or not in some oriented sport practice. A superiority of PEA group upon GC in all TGMD-2 measures was observed. In general, results show that the involvement of children with oriented sport practice can contribute to the motor development process.

RESUMO O presente estudo objetivou analisar o desempenho motor em habilidades básicas de crianças participantes e não participantes de prática esportiva orientada. A amostra foi constituída por 40 crianças de ambos os sexos com idade entre 8 e 10 anos, estudantes de uma escola privada de Belo Horizonte. Os grupos foram divididos em crianças participantes de alguma prática esportiva orientada adicional (PEA) e crianças que não participavam de nenhuma prática esportiva orientada além de aulas de educação física (GC). O desempenho em habilidades básicas foi avaliado por meio do Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2). As medidas usadas foram o quociente motor amplo, escore bruto das habilidades locomotoras e manipulativas e análise qualitativa. Uma anamnese foi aplicada junto aos pais contendo perguntas sobre a rotina das crianças, tipos de lugares que costumavam frequentar no tempo livre; tempo aproximado que faziam uso de brincadeiras, tempo aproximado que costumavam fazer uso de aparelhos e jogos eletrônicos em dias úteis, classe socioeconômica da família e se participavam ou não de alguma prática esportiva orientada. Observou-se superioridade do grupo PEA sobre o grupo GC em todas as medidas do TGMD-2. O conjunto dos resultados permite concluir que o envolvimento de crianças com prática esportiva orientada pode contribuir com o processo de desenvolvimento motor.

Aumento gradual da variabilidade de prática: efeito na aprendizagem da estrutura e na parametrização da habilidade / Gradual increment on practice variability: effects on structure learning and skill parametrization

Resumo Tradicionalmente, na aprendizagem de habilidades motoras a prática tem sido estruturada de forma constante, em blocos, seriada ou aleatória. Tem sido proposta a superioridade da prática variada sobre a prática constante bem como da prática aleatória e seriada sobre a prática em blocos. Atualmente tem sido observada uma especificidade do tipo de prática: a prática constante auxilia na formação de uma estrutura de movimento, especialmente no inicio da aprendizagem e a prática variada na melhora da parametrização. O presente estudo investigou diferentes regimes de prática e a sua combinaçao numa sequência que fornece um aumento gradual de variabilidade (constante, blocos e aleatório) na aquisição de habilidades motoras. A amostra foi distribuida em quatro grupos (n = 10): CCC (constante), BBB (blocos), AAA (aleatório) e CBA (constante-blocos-aleatório). O experimenta foi dividido em fase de aquisição e teste de transferência. Na fase de aquisição a tarefa foi pressionar teclas numéricas do teclado de um computador em uma sequência (2, 8, 6, 4) com o dedo indicador, com tempo relativo entre os componentes especificado (22,2%, 44,4% e 33,3%) e com os seguintes tempos totais (700, 900 e 1100 ms) estabelecidos conforme o delineamento experimental. Os resultados do teste demonstraram superioridade dos grupos CBA e AAA na medida de erro absoluta, dos grupos CCC e BBB na medida de erro relativo e dos grupos CCC, BBB e CBA na medida de variabilidade de erro relativo. Tais resultados demonstram que os regimes de prática que forneceram menor variabilidade conduziram ao aprendizado de uma estrutura de movimento, enquanto que as que forneceram maior variabilidade resultaram na melhora da capacidade de parametrização.(AU)

Abstract Traditionally, on the learning of motor skill practice has been scheduled in constant, blocked, serial or random fashion. A superiority of variable over constant practice has been suggested as well as random and serial practices over blocked practice. Recently a specificity of the type of practice has been observed: constant practice helps the formation of a movement structure, especially in the early learning, and the variable practice improves parameterization. This study investigated different practice schedules and their combinations in a sequence that provides a gradual increment of variability (constant, blocked, and random) in the acquisition of motor skills. Participants were divided into four groups (n = 10): CCC [constant), BBB (blocked), RRR (random) and CBR (constant-blocked-random). The experiment consisted of an acquisition phase and a transfer test. In the acquisition phase the task comprised pressing a numeric keyboard in a given sequence (2, 8, 6, 4) with the index finger, with fixed relative timing among presses (22.2%, 44.4% and 33.3%) and specific total times (700, 900 and 1100 ms) determined by the experimental design. The test results showed a superiority of CBR and RRR groups in the absolute error measure, of CCC and BBB groups in the relative error measure, and CCC, BBB and CBR groups in the variability of relative error measure. These results evidence the practice schedules that provided smaller variability led to the learning of a movement structure, whereas the ones that provided greater variability culminated in the improvement in parameterization.(AU)

The primary motor cortex is associated with learning the absolute, but not relative, timing dimension of a task: A tDCS study.

The functional role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in the production of movement parameters, such as length, direction and force, is well known; however, whether M1 is associated with the parametric adjustments in the absolute timing dimension of the task remains unknown. Previous studies have not applied tasks and analyses that could separate the absolute (variant) and relative (invariant) dimensions. We applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to M1 before motor practice to facilitate motor learning. A sequential key-pressing task was practiced with two goals: learning the relative timing dimension and learning the absolute timing dimension. All effects of the stimulation of M1 were observed only in the absolute dimension of the task. Mainly, the stimulation was associated with better performance in the transfer test in the absolute dimension. Taken together, our results indicate that M1 is an important area for learning the absolute timing dimension of a motor sequence.

Tempo de reação de escolha de capoeiristas iniciantes e experientes / Reaction time of choice for beginners and experienced capoeiristas / Tiempo de reacción de elección para capoeiristas principiantes y avanzados

Resumo Na capoeira uma capacidade fundamental é o tempo de reação, pois exige a seleção rápida de uma resposta correta para a variedade de estímulos que se apresentam. O presente estudo verificou o efeito da prática da capoeira sobre o tempo de reação. Participaram 20 adultos praticantes de capoeira divididos em dois grupos de acordo com o tempo de prática. O tempo de reação foi medido com a Unidade de Determinação do Sistema de Testes de Viena (versão 6.0). Os resultados apresentaram diferença significativa (p < 0,05) para o número de respostas corretas, respostas erradas e para o tempo de reação de escolha a favor dos capoeiristas experientes em comparação com os iniciantes. Concluiu-se que a prática da capoeira pode melhorar o TR de escolha de seus praticantes.

Abstract In Capoeira, good reaction time is that to provide rapid and correct answer for stimuli prestentioned, consist of in ability very important for success or not event. The purpose this study was to verify effect of the practice of Capoeira on choice reaction time. Participated of the study 20 practitioners Capoeira, adults, divided in two groups according to time practice. Reaction time went measured used a Unit Determination of the Viena's System Tests (version 6.0). The results showed a significant difference (p < .05) for the numbers of correct answers, wrong answers and choice reaction time in favor of capoeiristas experienced in comparison with beginners. It was conclude that the practice of Capoeira could improve choice reaction time of the practitioners.

Resumen En Capoeira, tiempo de reacción es una capacidad fundamental, requiere una selección rápida de una respuesta correcta a la variedad de estímulos que se presentan. Este estudio examinó el efecto de la práctica de Capoeira en el tiempo de reacción. Los participantes fueron 20 adultos que practican Capoeira dividido en dos grupos de acuerdo con el momento de la práctica. El tiempo de reacción se midió usando la unidad de determinación del Sistema de Prueba de Viena (versión 6,0). Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas (p < 0,05) para el número de respuestas correctas, respuestas incorrectas y el tiempo de reacción de elección a favor de capoeiristas experimentado en comparación con los principiantes. Se concluyó que la práctica de la capoeira puede mejorar TR elección de sus practicantes.

Repetition and variation in motor practice: A review of neural correlates.

Random practice results in more effective motor learning than either constant or blocked practice. Recent studies have investigated the effects of practice schedules at the neurophysiological level. This study aims to conduct a literature review of the following issues: (a) the differential involvement of premotor areas, the primary motor cortex, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex in different types of practice; (b) changes in the participation of these areas throughout practice; and (c) the degree of support that current neurophysiological findings offer to strengthen the behavioral proposition that distinct cognitive processes are generated by different practice schedules. Data from 10 studies that investigated associations between practice structures and neurobiological substrates were analyzed. The participation of the indicated areas was found to depend on practice structure and varied during the learning process. Greater cognitive engagement was associated with random practice. In conclusion, distinct neural processes are engendered by different practice conditions. The integration of behavioral and neurophysiological findings promotes a more comprehensive view of the phenomenon.

Efeito da demonstração distribuída na aprendizagem do saque do voleibol / The effect of distributed demonstrations in the volleyball serve learning

O presente estudo investigou o efeito da distribuição das demonstrações na aprendizagem do saque japonês do voleibol. Dezoito sujeitos foram distribuídos em três grupos: G1 (oito demonstrações anteriores à prática), G2 (quatro demonstrações anteriores e quatro na 40º tentativa) e G4 (duas anteriores, duas na 20º, 2 na 40º, duas na 60º tentativas). A execução de uma pessoa habilidosa na tarefa foi filmada e utilizada como forma de demonstração para todos os grupos. O experimento consistiu de pré-teste com 10 tentativas, fase de aquisição com 80 tentativas e teste de retenção após 24 horas com 10 tentativas. Os resultados mostraram que as demonstrações anteriores à sessão de prática levaram a melhoras no escore e a demonstração distribuída levou a melhoras no padrão de movimento

The present study investigated the effect of the distribution of the demonstration on the learning of the Japanese volleyball serve. Eighteen subjects were divided into 3 groups: G1 (8 demonstrations prior the practice), G2 (4 prior and 4 on 40th trial) and G4 (2 prior, 2 on 20th, 2 on 40th and 2 on 60th trial). The execution of a skilled person in the task was recorded and adopted as a demonstration to all groups. The experiment had pretest with 10 trials, acquisition phase with 80 trials and the retention test after 24 hours, with 10 trials. The results showed that demonstrations prior to the practice sessions conducted to score improvement and the distributed demonstration conducted to improvement in motor pattern

Bandwidth knowledge of results on the learning of the saloon dart throwing task.

The effects of two different bandwidths of information of Knowledge of Results (KR) were investigated. 54 university students participated. The experiment consisted of an acquisition phase with practice of throwing a saloon dart as accurately as possible at a target lying on the floor 2.5 meters away until a specific area of the target was hit three trials in a row. Narrow bandwidth and Wide bandwidth groups received KR when performance was outside the bandwidth. A Control group received KR after every trial. A transfer test was run 10 min. later with 10 more trials and the target 3.0 m away, with no KR. Analyses showed that narrow KR bandwidth was associated with better learning of real world tasks.

An adaptive process model of motor learning: insights for the teaching of motor skills.

This article presents an outline of a non-equilibrium model, in which motor learning is explained as a continuous process of stabilization and adaptation. The article also shows how propositions derived from this model have been tested, and discusses possible practical implications of some supporting evidence to the teaching of motor skills. The stabilization refers to a process of functional stabilization that is achieved through negative feedback mechanisms. Initially, inconsistent and incorrect responses are gradually reduced, leading to a spatial-temporal patterning of the action. The adaptation is one in which new skills are formed from the reorganization of those already acquired through the flexibility of the system, reorganization of the skill structure, or self-organization. In order to provide learners with competency for adaptation, teachers should (a) guide students to learn motor skills taking into account that the stabilization of performance is just a transitory state that must be dismantled to achieve higher levels of complexity; (b) be clear which parts (micro) compose the skills and how they interact in order to form the whole (macro); (c) manipulate the skills in terms of their temporal, spatial, and/or spatiotemporal dimensions; (d) organize practice initially in a constant way, and then in a varied regimen (random) when the motor skills involve requirements of time and force; and, inversely for motor skills with spatial demands; and (e), provide a moderate frequency of feedback.

Efeitos do intervalo pós-conhecimento de resultados CR na aquisição de habilidades motoras / Effects of post­-knowledge of results (KR) interval in motor skill acquisition: pilot study

O momento em que se fornece conhecimento de resultados (CR) envolve três intervalos de tempo, sendo um deles o pós­ CR, intervalo entre a apresentação do CR e a próxima tentativa. Este estudo investigou a influência deste intervalo na aquisi­ção de habilidades motoras. Utilizou­-se um aparelho composto por seis recipientes em que se realizou transporte de bolas manipulando­-se a sequência e tempo alvo. O estudo foi constituído de fase de aquisição e testes com três grupos: sem intervalopós­ CR e com intervalos de 5 e 10 segundos. O teste de Kruskal­-Wallis nãoregistrou diferenças significantes (p>0,05) entre grupos no teste. Concluiu-­se que o intervalo pós ­CR não influenciou a aprendizagem motora, o que pode ser explicado pela ausência do intervalo pré ­CR, o que sugere certa relação entre esses intervalos no processo de aquisição de habilidades motoras...

Temporal locus of knowledge of results (KR) involves three time intervals. Among them, post­KR interval is the time between KR presentation and the next trial. This study investigated the effect of pos-t­KR interval in motor skill acquisition. It was used a device consisting of six containers where balls should be transported. It was manipulated the sequence and target time. The study presented acquisition phase and tests with three groups: no pos-t­KR interval and intervals of 5 and 10 seconds of post­KR. Kruskal­-Wallis test did not register significant differences (p >0.05)among groups in testes. It was concluded that pos-t­KR interval did not influence motor learning, what could be explained for pre-­KR interval absence, suggesting acertain relation between intervals in motor skills acquisition process...

El momento en el que aporta el conocimiento de los resultados (CR) implica tres intervalos de tiempo, siendo uno de ellos el post­-CR, intervalo de tiempo entre la presentación de los CR y el siguiente intento. Este estudio investigó la influencia de este intervalo en la adquisición de las habilidades motoras. Utilizamos una herramienta formada por seis contenedores en los que se celebraron las pelotas portransporte de manipular la secuencia y tiempo meta. El estudio se compone de fase de adquisición y exámenes con tres grupos: sin intervalos post-­CR y con intervalos de 5 y 10 segundos. La prueba de Kruskal-­Wallis no se observaron diferencias significativas (p>0,05) entre los dos grupos en la prueba. Se llegó a la conclusión que el intervalo después de CR no influyó en el aprendizaje motor, que puede explicar-se por la ausencia de rango pre-­CR, que denota una cierta relación entre estos intervalosen el proceso de adquisición de las habilidades motoras...

Efeitos dos intervalos pré-CR, pós-CR e intertentativas em aprendizagem motora / Effects of delay KR, post-KR, and intertrial intervals in motor learning

O fornecimento de conhecimento de resultados (CR) envolve os aspectos temporais, que consistem no momento em que o CR é fornecido além de se relacionar a três intervalos: Pré-CR, Pós-CR e o intervalo intertentativas. O presente estudo investigou esses intervalos em três diferentes experimentos. 90 voluntários desempenharam uma tarefa de posicionamento com sequência e tempo alvo pré-estabelecidos. Testes de transferência imediata e atrasada foram realizados em nova sequência e tempo alvo, sem CR. O teste de transferência atrasada foi realizado 24h após a fase de aquisição. Os três experimentos foram conduzidos para investigar os efeitos do pré-CR, intervalo pós-CR e o intervalo intertentativas, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram diferenças entre os grupos na condição do intervalo pré-CR e intervalo intertentativas. Concluiu-se que os efeitos do intervalo pré-CR e intervalo intertentativas podem ser mais efetivos para a aprendizagem motora que o intervalo pós-CR.

The supply of knowledge of results (KR) involves temporal aspects, which is the moment when KR is provided, and it is composed by three intervals: delay KR, post-KR interval, and intertrial interval. This study investigated these intervals in three different experiments. Ninety volunteers performed a positioning task with sequence and target time pre-established. Immediate and delayed transfer tests were performed in a new sequence and target time, without KR. A delayed transfer test was carried out 24 hours after acquisition phase. Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of KR delay, post-KR interval, and intertrial interval, respectively. The results showed differences among groups in KR delay and intertrial interval conditions. We conclude that the effects of KR delay and intertrials interval can be more effective for motor learning than the post-KR interval.