Targeting 14-3-3θ-mediated TDP-43 pathology in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia mice.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are characterized by cytoplasmic deposition of the nuclear TAR-binding protein 43 (TDP-43). Although cytoplasmic re-localization of TDP-43 is a key event in the pathogenesis of ALS/FTD, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we identified a non-canonical interaction between 14-3-3θ and TDP-43, which regulates nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling. Neuronal 14-3-3θ levels were increased in sporadic ALS and FTD with TDP-43 pathology. Pathogenic TDP-43 showed increased interaction with 14-3-3θ, resulting in cytoplasmic accumulation, insolubility, phosphorylation, and fragmentation of TDP-43, resembling pathological changes in disease. Harnessing this increased affinity of 14-3-3θ for pathogenic TDP-43, we devised a gene therapy vector targeting TDP-43 pathology, which mitigated functional deficits and neurodegeneration in different ALS/FTD mouse models expressing mutant or non-mutant TDP-43, including when already symptomatic at the time of treatment. Our study identified 14-3-3θ as a mediator of cytoplasmic TDP-43 localization with implications for ALS/FTD pathogenesis and therapy.

Reduction of advanced tau-mediated memory deficits by the MAP kinase p38γ.

Hyperphosphorylation of the neuronal tau protein contributes to Alzheimer's disease (AD) by promoting tau pathology and neuronal and cognitive deficits. In contrast, we have previously shown that site-specific tau phosphorylation can inhibit toxic signals induced by amyloid-ß (Aß) in mouse models. The post-synaptic mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase p38γ mediates this site-specific phosphorylation on tau at Threonine-205 (T205). Using a gene therapeutic approach, we draw on this neuroprotective mechanism to improve memory in two Aß-dependent mouse models of AD at stages when advanced memory deficits are present. Increasing activity of post-synaptic kinase p38γ that targets T205 in tau reduced memory deficits in symptomatic Aß-induced AD models. Reconstitution experiments with wildtype human tau or phosphorylation-deficient tauT205A showed that T205 modification is critical for downstream effects of p38γ that prevent memory impairment in APP-transgenic mice. Furthermore, genome editing of the T205 codon in the murine Mapt gene showed that this single side chain in endogenous tau critically modulates memory deficits in APP-transgenic Alzheimer's mice. Ablating the protective effect of p38γ activity by genetic p38γ deletion in a tau transgenic mouse model that expresses non-pathogenic tau rendered tau toxic and resulted in impaired memory function in the absence of human Aß. Thus, we propose that modulating neuronal p38γ activity serves as an intrinsic tau-dependent therapeutic approach to augment compromised cognition in advanced dementia.

Sphingosine Kinase 2 Potentiates Amyloid Deposition but Protects against Hippocampal Volume Loss and Demyelination in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a potent vasculoprotective and neuroprotective signaling lipid, synthesized primarily by sphingosine kinase 2 (SK2) in the brain. We have reported pronounced loss of S1P and SK2 activity early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, and an inverse correlation between hippocampal S1P levels and age in females, leading us to speculate that loss of S1P is a sensitizing influence for AD. Paradoxically, SK2 was reported to mediate amyloid ß (Aß) formation from amyloid precursor protein (APP) in vitro To determine whether loss of S1P sensitizes to Aß-mediated neurodegeneration, we investigated whether SK2 deficiency worsens pathology and memory in male J20 (PDGFB-APPSwInd) mice. SK2 deficiency greatly reduced Aß content in J20 mice, associated with significant improvements in epileptiform activity and cross-frequency coupling measured by hippocampal electroencephalography. However, several key measures of APPSwInd-dependent neurodegeneration were enhanced on the SK2-null background, despite reduced Aß burden. These included hippocampal volume loss, oligodendrocyte attrition and myelin loss, and impaired performance in Y-maze and social novelty memory tests. Inhibition of the endosomal cholesterol exporter NPC1 greatly reduced sphingosine phosphorylation in glial cells, linking loss of SK2 activity and S1P in AD to perturbed endosomal lipid metabolism. Our findings establish SK2 as an important endogenous regulator of both APP processing to Aß, and oligodendrocyte survival, in vivo These results urge greater consideration of the roles played by oligodendrocyte dysfunction and altered membrane lipid metabolic flux as drivers of neurodegeneration in AD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Genetic, neuropathological, and functional studies implicate both Aß and altered lipid metabolism and/or signaling as key pathogenic drivers of Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we first demonstrate that the enzyme SK2, which generates the signaling lipid S1P, is required for Aß formation from APP in vivo Second, we establish a new role for SK2 in the protection of oligodendrocytes and myelin. Loss of SK2 sensitizes to Aß-mediated neurodegeneration by attenuating oligodendrocyte survival and promoting hippocampal atrophy, despite reduced Aß burden. Our findings support a model in which Aß-independent sensitizing influences such as loss of neuroprotective S1P are more important drivers of neurodegeneration than gross Aß concentration or plaque density.

Neuronal MAP kinase p38α inhibits c-Jun N-terminal kinase to modulate anxiety-related behaviour.

Modulation of behavioural responses by neuronal signalling pathways remains incompletely understood. Signalling via mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascades regulates multiple neuronal functions. Here, we show that neuronal p38α, a MAP kinase of the p38 kinase family, has a critical and specific role in modulating anxiety-related behaviour in mice. Neuron-specific p38α-knockout mice show increased levels of anxiety in behaviour tests, yet no other behavioural, cognitive or motor deficits. Using CRISPR-mediated deletion of p38α in cells, we show that p38α inhibits c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activity, a function that is specific to p38α over other p38 kinases. Consistently, brains of neuron-specific p38α-knockout mice show increased JNK activity. Inhibiting JNK using a specific blood-brain barrier-permeable inhibitor reduces JNK activity in brains of p38α-knockout mice to physiological levels and reverts anxiety behaviour. Thus, our results suggest that neuronal p38α negatively regulates JNK activity that is required for specific modulation of anxiety-related behaviour.

Peptide Nanofiber Substrates for Long-Term Culturing of Primary Neurons.

The culturing of primary neurons represents a central pillar of neuroscience research. Primary neurons are derived directly from brain tissue and recapitulate key aspects of neuronal development in an in vitro setting. Unlike neural stem cells, primary neurons do not divide; thus, initial attachment of cells to a suitable substrate is critical. Commonly used polylysine substrates can suffer from batch variability owing to their polymeric nature. Herein, we report the use of chemically well-defined, self-assembling tetrapeptides as substrates for primary neuronal culture. These water-soluble peptides assemble into fibers which facilitate adhesion and development of primary neurons, their long-term survival (>40 days), synaptic maturation, and electrical activity. Furthermore, these substrates are permissive toward neuronal transfection and transduction which, coupled with their uniformity and reproducible nature, make them suitable for a wide variety of applications in neuroscience.

Generation of a New Tau Knockout (tauΔex1) Line Using CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing in Mice.

Alzheimer's disease and other dementias present with tau pathology. Several mouse lines with knockout of the tau-encoding Mapt gene have been reported, yet findings often differed between lines and sites. Here, we report a new tau knockout strain (tauΔex1), generated by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing of intron -1/exon 1 of Mapt in C57Bl/6J mice. TauΔex1 mice had no overt phenotype, but, in line with previous models, they showed a significantly reduced susceptibility to excitotoxic seizures, with normal memory formation in young mice. This new in vivo resource will be made freely available to the research community.

An N-terminal motif unique to primate tau enables differential protein-protein interactions.

Compared with other mammalian species, humans are particularly susceptible to tau-mediated neurodegenerative disorders. Differential interactions of the tau protein with other proteins are critical for mediating tau's physiological functions as well as tau-associated pathological processes. Primate tau harbors an 11-amino acid-long motif in its N-terminal region (residues 18-28), which is not present in non-primate species and whose function is unknown. Here, we used deletion mutagenesis to remove this sequence region from the longest human tau isoform, followed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) pulldown assays paired with isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) multiplex labeling, a quantitative method to measure protein abundance by mass spectrometry. Using this method, we found that the primate-specific N-terminal tau motif differentially mediates interactions with neuronal proteins. Among these binding partners are proteins involved in synaptic transmission (synapsin-1 and synaptotagmin-1) and signaling proteins of the 14-3-3 family. Furthermore, we identified an interaction of tau with a member of the annexin family (annexin A5) that was linked to the 11-residue motif. These results suggest that primate Tau has evolved specific residues that differentially regulate protein-protein interactions compared with tau proteins from other non-primate mammalian species. Our findings provide in vitro insights into tau's interactions with other proteins that may be relevant to human disease.

Site-specific phosphorylation of tau inhibits amyloid-ß toxicity in Alzheimer's mice.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) toxicity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is considered to be mediated by phosphorylated tau protein. In contrast, we found that, at least in early disease, site-specific phosphorylation of tau inhibited Aß toxicity. This specific tau phosphorylation was mediated by the neuronal p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase p38γ and interfered with postsynaptic excitotoxic signaling complexes engaged by Aß. Accordingly, depletion of p38γ exacerbated neuronal circuit aberrations, cognitive deficits, and premature lethality in a mouse model of AD, whereas increasing the activity of p38γ abolished these deficits. Furthermore, mimicking site-specific tau phosphorylation alleviated Aß-induced neuronal death and offered protection from excitotoxicity. Our work provides insights into postsynaptic processes in AD pathogenesis and challenges a purely pathogenic role of tau phosphorylation in neuronal toxicity.

Prognostic value and in vitro biological relevance of Neuropilin 1 and Neuropilin 2 in osteosarcoma.

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in osteosarcoma increased the long-term survival of patients with localized disease considerably but metastasizing osteosarcoma remained largely treatment resistant. Neuropilins, transmembrane glycoproteins, are important receptors for VEGF dependent hyper-vascularization in tumor angiogenesis and their aberrant expression promotes tumorigenesis and metastasis in many solid tumors. Our analysis of Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) and Neuropilin-2 (NRP2) immunostaining in a tissue microarray of 66 osteosarcoma patients identified NRP2 as an indicator of poor overall, metastasis-free and progression free survival while NRP1 had no predictive value. Patients with tumors that expressed NRP2 in the absence of NRP1 had a significantly worse prognosis than NRP1(-)/NRP2(-), NRP1(+) or NRP1(+)/NRP2(+) tumors. Moreover, patients with overt metastases and with NRP2-positive primary tumors had a significantly shorter survival rate than patients with metastases but NRP2-negative tumors. Furthermore, the expression of both NRP1 and NRP2 in osteosarcoma cell lines correlated to a variable degree with the metastatic potential of the respective cell line. To address the functional relevance of Neuropilins for VEGF signaling we used shRNA mediated down-regulation and blocking antibodies of NRP1 and NRP2 in the metastatic 143B and HuO9-M132 cell lines. In 143B cells, VEGFA signaling monitored by AKT phosphorylation was more inhibited by blocking of NRP1, whereas in HuO9-M132 cells NRP2 blocking was more effective indicating that NRP1 and NRP2 can substitute each other in the functional interaction with VEGFR1. Altogether, these data point to NRP2 as a powerful prognostic marker in osteosarcoma and together with NRP1 as a novel target for tumor-suppressive therapy.

Tau-targeting passive immunization modulates aspects of pathology in tau transgenic mice.

Immunization is increasingly recognized as a suitable therapeutic avenue for the treatment of neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies. Tau is a key molecular player in these conditions and therefore represents an attractive target for passive immunization approaches. We performed such an approach in two independent tau transgenic mouse models of tauopathy, K369I tau transgenic K3 and P301L tau transgenic pR5 mice. The antibodies we used were either specific for full-length tau or tau phosphorylated at serine 404 (pS404), a residue that forms part of the paired helical filament (PHF)-1 phosphoepitope that characterizes tau neurofibrillary tangles in tauopathies. Although both pS404 antibodies had a similar affinity, they differed in isotype, and only passive immunization with the IgG2a/κ pS404-specific antibody resulted in a lower tangle burden and reduced phosphorylation of tau at the PHF1 epitope in K3 mice. In pR5 mice, the same antibody led to a reduced phosphorylation of the pS422 and PHF1 epitopes of tau. In addition, histological sections of the hippocampal dentate gyrus of the immunized pR5 mice displayed reduced pS422 staining intensities. These results show that passive immunization targeting tau can modulate aspects of tau pathology in tau transgenic mouse models, in an antibody isotype-specific manner. We show that passive immunization targeting the pathological phosphorylation site pS404 on human tau with a monoclonal IgG2a/κ, but not a IgG1/κ antibody, reduced hyperphosphorylation of tau and tangle burden in two independent mouse models of tau pathology. This shows that both specificity and isotype of phospho-tau (p-tau)-specific antibodies are important for therapeutically ameliorating tau pathology.

p38 MAP kinase-mediated NMDA receptor-dependent suppression of hippocampal hypersynchronicity in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Hypersynchronicity of neuronal brain circuits is a feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Mouse models of AD expressing mutated forms of the amyloid-ß precursor protein (APP), a central protein involved in AD pathology, show cortical hypersynchronicity. We studied hippocampal circuitry in APP23 transgenic mice using telemetric electroencephalography (EEG), at the age of onset of memory deficits. APP23 mice display spontaneous hypersynchronicity in the hippocampus including epileptiform spike trains. Furthermore, spectral contributions of hippocampal theta and gamma oscillations are compromised in APP23 mice, compared to non-transgenic controls. Using cross-frequency coupling analysis, we show that hippocampal gamma amplitude modulation by theta phase is markedly impaired in APP23 mice. Hippocampal hypersynchronicity and waveforms are differentially modulated by injection of riluzole and the non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor inhibitor MK801, suggesting specific involvement of voltage-gated sodium channels and NMDA receptors in hypersynchronicity thresholds in APP23 mice. Furthermore, APP23 mice show marked activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase in hippocampus, and injection of MK801 but not riluzole reduces activation of p38 in the hippocampus. A p38 inhibitor induces hypersynchronicity in APP23 mice to a similar extent as MK801, thus supporting suppression of hypersynchronicity involves NMDA receptors-mediated p38 activity. In summary, we characterize components of hippocampal hypersynchronicity, waveform patterns and cross-frequency coupling in the APP23 mouse model by pharmacological modulation, furthering the understanding of epileptiform brain activity in AD.

The nucleotide exchange factor SIL1 is required for glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from mouse pancreatic beta cells in vivo.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Regulation of insulin secretion along the secretory pathway is incompletely understood. We addressed the expression of SIL1, a nucleotide exchange factor for the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone glucose-regulated protein 78 kD (GRP78), in pancreatic beta cells and investigated whether or not SIL1 is involved in beta cell function. METHODS: SIL1 expression was analysed by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. Metabolic and islet variables, including glucose tolerance, beta cell mass, insulin secretion, islet ultrastructure, insulin content and levels of ER stress marker proteins, were addressed in Sil1 knockout (Sil1 (-/-)) mice. Insulin, proinsulin and C-peptide release was addressed in Sil1 (-/-) islets, and SIL1 overexpression or knockdown was explored in MIN6 cells in vitro. Models of type 1 diabetes and insulin resistance were induced in Sil1 (-/-) mice by administration of streptozotocin (STZ) and a high-fat diet (HFD), respectively. RESULTS: We show that SIL1 is expressed in pancreatic beta cells and is required for islet insulin content, islet sizing, glucose tolerance and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in vivo. Levels of pancreatic ER stress markers are increased in Sil1 (-/-) mice, and Sil1 (-/-) beta cell ER is ultrastructurally compromised. Isolated Sil1 (-/-) islets show lower proinsulin and insulin content and impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Modulation of SIL1 protein levels in MIN6 cells correlates with changes in insulin content and secreted insulin. Furthermore, Sil1 (-/-) mice are more susceptible to STZ-induced type 1 diabetes with increased apoptosis. Upon HFD feeding, Sil1 (-/-) mice show markedly lower insulin secretion and exacerbated glucose intolerance compared with control mice. Surprisingly, however, HFD-fed Sil1 (-/-) mice display pronounced islet hyperplasia with low amounts of insulin in total pancreas. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These results reveal a novel role for the nucleotide exchange factor SIL1 in pancreatic beta cell function under physiological and disease conditions such as diabetes and the metabolic syndrome.

Reduced Latency in the Metastatic Niche Contributes to the More Aggressive Phenotype of LM8 Compared to Dunn Osteosarcoma Cells.

Metastasis is the major cause of death of osteosarcoma patients and its diagnosis remains difficult. In preclinical studies, however, forced expression of reporter genes in osteosarcoma cells has remarkably improved the detection of micrometastases and, consequently, the quality of the studies. We recently showed that Dunn cells equipped with a lacZ reporter gene disseminated from subcutaneous primary tumors as frequently as their highly metastatic subline LM8, but only LM8 cells grew to macrometastases. In the present time-course study, tail-vein-injected Dunn and LM8 cells settled within 24 h at the same frequency in the lung, liver, and kidney of mice. Furthermore, Dunn cells also grew to macrometastases, but, compared to LM8, with a delay of two weeks in lung and one week in liver and kidney tissue, consistent with prolonged survival of the mice. Dunn- and LM8-cell-derived ovary and spine metastases occurred less frequently. In vitro, Dunn cells showed less invasiveness and stronger contact inhibition and intercellular adhesion than LM8 cells and several cancer- and dormancy-related genes were differentially expressed. In conclusion, Dunn cells, compared to LM8, have a similar capability but a longer latency to form macrometastases and provide an interesting new experimental system to study tumor cell dormancy.

Caprin-1, a novel Cyr61-interacting protein, promotes osteosarcoma tumor growth and lung metastasis in mice.

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary bone malignancy in children and adolescents. More than 30% of patients develop lung metastasis, which is the leading cause of mortality. Recently, the extracellular matrix protein Cyr61 has been recognized as a malignancy promoting protein in OS mouse model with prognostic potential in human OS. In this study, we aimed at the identification of novel Cyr61-interacting proteins. Here we report that Cyr61 associates with Caprin-1, and confocal microscopy showed that stable ectopic expression of Caprin-1 leads to the formation of stress granules containing Caprin-1 and Cyr61, confers resistance to cisplatin-induced apoptosis, and resulted in constitutive phosphorylation of Akt and ERK1/2. Importantly, ectopic expression of Caprin-1 dramatically enhanced primary tumor growth, remarkably increased lung metastatic load in a SCID intratibial OS mouse model, and decreased significantly (p<0.0018) the survival of the mice. Although Caprin-1 expression, evaluated with a tissue microarray including samples from 59 OS patients, failed to be an independent predictor for the patients' outcome in this limited cohort of patients, increased Caprin-1 expression indicated a tendency to shortened overall survival, and more strikingly, Cyr61/Caprin-1 co-expression was associated with worse survival than that observed for patients with tumors expressing either Cyr61 or Caprin-1 alone or none of these proteins. The findings imply that Caprin-1 may have a metastasis promoting role in OS and show that through resistance to apoptosis and via the activation of Akt and ERK1/2 pathways, Caprin-1 is significantly involved in the development of OS metastasis.

Matrix Metalloproteinase 1 promotes tumor formation and lung metastasis in an intratibial injection osteosarcoma mouse model.

Proteolytic degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important process during tumor invasion. Matrix Metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) is one of the proteases that degrade collagen type I, a major component of bone ECM. In the present study, the biological relevance of MMP-1 in osteosarcoma (OS) tumor growth and metastasis was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Human OS cells in primary culture expressed MMP-1 encoding mRNA at considerably higher levels than normal human bone cells. In addition, MMP-1 mRNA and protein expression in the highly metastatic human osteosarcoma 143-B cell line was remarkably higher than in the non-metastatic parental HOS cell line. Stable shRNA-mediated downregulation of MMP-1 in 143-B cells impaired adhesion to collagen I and anchorage-independent growth, reflected by a reduced ability to grow in soft agar. Upon intratibial injection into SCID mice, 143-B cells with shRNA-downregulated MMP-1 expression formed smaller primary tumors and significantly lower numbers of lung micro- and macrometastases than control cells. Conversely, HOS cells stably overexpressing MMP-1 showed an enhanced adhesion capability to collagen I and accelerated anchorage-independent growth compared to empty vector-transduced control cells. Furthermore, and most importantly, individual MMP-1 overexpression in HOS cells enabled the formation of osteolytic primary tumors and lung metastasis while the HOS control cells did not develop any tumors or metastases after intratibial injection. The findings of the present study reveal an important role of MMP-1 in OS primary tumor and metastasis formation to the lung, the major organ of OS metastasis.

The antineoplastic antibiotic taurolidine promotes lung and liver metastasis in two syngeneic osteosarcoma mouse models and exhibits severe liver toxicity.

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most frequent primary bone tumor. Despite multiagent neoadjuvant chemotherapy, patients with metastatic disease have a poor prognosis. Moreover, currently used chemotherapeutics have severe toxic side effects. Thus, novel agents with improved antimetastatic activity and reduced toxicity are needed. Taurolidine, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial, has recently been shown to have antineoplastic properties against a variety of tumors and low systemic toxicity. Consequently, we investigated in our study the antineoplastic potential of taurolidine against OS in two different mouse models. Although both OS cell lines, K7M2 and LM8, were sensitive for the compound in vitro, intraperitoneal application of taurolidine failed to inhibit primary tumor growth. Moreover, it enhanced the metastatic load in both models 1.7- to 20-fold and caused severe liver deformations and up to 40% mortality. Thus, systemic toxicity was further investigated in tumor-free mice histologically, by electron microscopy and by measurements of representative liver enzymes. Taurolidine dose-dependent fibrous thickening of the liver capsule and adhesions and atrophies of the liver lobes were comparable in healthy and tumor-bearing mice. Liver toxicity was further indicated by up to eightfold elevated levels of the liver enzymes alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase and GLDH in the circulation. Ultrastructural analysis of affected liver tissue showed swollen mitochondria with cristolysis and numerous lipid vacuoles in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. The findings of our study question the applicability of taurolidine for OS treatment and may suggest the need for caution regarding the widespread clinical use of taurolidine as an antineoplastic agent.

Cyr61 expression in osteosarcoma indicates poor prognosis and promotes intratibial growth and lung metastasis in mice.

Osteosarcoma is the most frequent primary malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents with a high propensity for lung metastasis, the major cause of disease-related death. Reliable outcome-predictive markers and targets for osteosarcoma metastasis-suppressing drugs are urgently needed for more effective treatment of metastasizing osteosarcoma, which has a current mean 5-year survival rate of approximately 20%. This study investigated the prognostic value and the biological relevance of the extracellular matrix-associated growth factor Cyr61 of the CCN family of secreted proteins in osteosarcoma and metastasis. The prognostic value of Cyr61 was assessed with Kaplan-Meier analyses based on Cyr61 immunostaining of a tissue microarray of osteosarcoma biopsies collected from 60 patients with local or metastatic disease. Effects of Cyr61 overexpression on intratibial tumor growth and lung metastasis of the low metastatic human SaOS-2 osteosarcoma cell line were examined in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice. Cyr61-provoked signaling was studied in vitro in nonmanipulated SaOS-2 cells. Cyr61 immunostaining of osteosarcoma tissue cores correlated significantly (p = 0.02) with poor patient survival. Mice intratibially injected with Cyr61-overexpressing SaOS-2 cells showed faster tumor growth and an increase in number and outgrowth of lung metastases and consequently significantly (p = 0.0018) shorter survival than mice injected with control SaOS-2 cells. Cyr61-evoked PI-3K/Akt/GSK3ß signaling in SaOS-2 cells resulted in a subcellular redistribution of the cell cycle inhibitor p21(Cip1/WAF1). Cyr61 has considerable potential as a novel marker for poor prognosis in osteosarcoma and is an attractive target for primary tumor- and metastases-suppressing drugs.