The impact of capsaicinoids on APP processing in Alzheimer's disease in SH-SY5Y cells.

The vanilloid capsaicin is a widely consumed spice, known for its burning and "hot" sensation through activation of TRPV1 ion-channels, but also known to decrease oxidative stress, inflammation and influence tau-pathology. Beside these positive effects, little is known about its effects on amyloid-precursor-protein (APP) processing leading to amyloid-ß (Aß), the major component of senile plaques. Treatment of neuroblastoma cells with capsaicinoids (24 hours, 10 µM) resulted in enhanced Aß-production and reduced Aß-degradation, leading to increased Aß-levels. In detailed analysis of the amyloidogenic-pathway, both BACE1 gene-expression as well as protein-levels were found to be elevated, leading to increased ß-secretase-activity. Additionally, γ-secretase gene-expression as well as activity was enhanced, accompanied by a shift of presenilin from non-raft to raft membrane-domains where amyloidogenic processing takes place. Furthermore, impaired Aß-degradation in presence of capsaicinoids is dependent on the insulin-degrading-enzyme, one of the major Aß-degrading-enzymes. Regarding Aß-homeostasis, no differences were found between the major capsaicinoids, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, and a mixture of naturally derived capsaicinoids; effects on Ca2+-homeostasis were ruled out. Our results show that in respect to Alzheimer's disease, besides the known positive effects of capsaicinoids, pro-amyloidogenic properties also exist, enhancing Aß-levels, likely restricting the potential use of capsaicinoids as therapeutic substances in Alzheimer's disease.

Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase the degradation of amyloid-ß by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been proposed to be highly beneficial in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD pathology is closely linked to an overproduction and accumulation of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides as extracellular senile plaques in the brain. Total Aß levels are not only dependent on its production by proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), but also on Aß-clearance mechanisms, including Aß-degrading enzymes. Here we show that the omega-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increase Aß-degradation by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), the major Aß-degrading enzyme secreted into the extracellular space of neuronal and microglial cells. The identification of the molecular mechanisms revealed that EPA directly increases IDE enzyme activity and elevates gene expression of IDE. DHA also directly stimulates IDE enzyme activity and affects IDE sorting by increasing exosome release of IDE, resulting in enhanced Aß-degradation in the extracellular milieu. Apart from the known positive effect of DHA in reducing Aß production, EPA and DHA might ameliorate AD pathology by increasing Aß turnover.

Oxidized Docosahexaenoic Acid Species and Lipid Peroxidation Products Increase Amyloidogenic Amyloid Precursor Protein Processing.

One of the main characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the ß-amyloid peptide (Aß) generated by ß- and γ-secretase processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Previously it has been demonstrated that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are associated with a reduced risk of AD caused by decreased Aß production. However, in epidemiological studies and nutritional approaches, the outcomes of DHA-dependent treatment were partially controversial. PUFAs are very susceptible to reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, which are increased during disease pathology. In line with published results, lipid peroxidation was elevated in human postmortem AD brains; especially 4-hydroxy-nonenal (HNE) was increased. To investigate whether lipid peroxidation is only a consequence or might also influence the processes leading to AD, we analyzed 7 different oxidized lipid species including 5 oxidized DHA derivatives and the lipid peroxidation products of ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs, HNE and 4-hydroxy-hexenal, in human neuroblastoma cells and mouse mixed cortical neurons. In the presence of oxidized lipids Aß and soluble ß-secreted APP levels were elevated, whereas soluble α-secreted APP was decreased, suggesting a shift from the nonamyloidogenic to the amyloidogenic pathway of APP processing. Furthermore, ß- and γ-secretase activity was increased by oxidized lipids via increased gene expression and additionally by a direct effect on ß-secretase activity. Importantly, only 1% oxidized DHA was sufficient to revert the protective effect of DHA and to significantly increase Aß production. Therefore, our results emphasize the need to prevent DHA from oxidation in nutritional approaches and might help explain the divergent results of clinical DHA studies.

APP intracellular domain derived from amyloidogenic ß- and γ-secretase cleavage regulates neprilysin expression.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by an accumulation of Amyloid-ß (Aß), released by sequential proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by ß - and γ-secretase. Aß peptides can aggregate, leading to toxic Aß oligomers and amyloid plaque formation. Aß accumulation is not only dependent on de novo synthesis but also on Aß degradation. Neprilysin (NEP) is one of the major enzymes involved in Aß degradation. Here we investigate the molecular mechanism of NEP regulation, which is up to now controversially discussed to be affected by APP processing itself. We found that NEP expression is highly dependent on the APP intracellular domain (AICD), released by APP processing. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts devoid of APP processing, either by the lack of the catalytically active subunit of the γ-secretase complex [presenilin (PS) 1/2] or by the lack of APP and the APP-like protein 2 (APLP2), showed a decreased NEP expression, activity and protein level. Similar results were obtained by utilizing cells lacking a functional AICD domain (APPΔCT15) or expressing mutations in the genes encoding for PS1. AICD supplementation or retransfection with an AICD encoding plasmid could rescue the down-regulation of NEP further strengthening the link between AICD and transcriptional NEP regulation, in which Fe65 acts as an important adaptor protein. Especially AICD generated by the amyloidogenic pathway seems to be more involved in the regulation of NEP expression. In line, analysis of NEP gene expression in vivo in six transgenic AD mouse models (APP and APLP2 single knock-outs, APP/APLP2 double knock-out, APP-swedish, APP-swedish/PS1Δexon9, and APPΔCT15) confirmed the results obtained in cell culture. In summary, in the present study we clearly demonstrate an AICD-dependent regulation of the Aß-degrading enzyme NEP in vitro and in vivo and elucidate the underlying mechanisms that might be beneficial to develop new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of AD.