Cardiovascular Effects of Canagliflozin in Relation to Renal Function and Albuminuria.

BACKGROUND: People with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) have elevated cardiovascular (CV) risk, including for hospitalization for heart failure (HHF). Canagliflozin reduced CV and kidney events in patients with T2DM and high CV risk or nephropathy in the CANVAS (CANagliflozin cardioVascular Assessment Study) Program and the CREDENCE (Canagliflozin and Renal Events in Diabetes with Established Nephropathy Clinical Evaluation) trial. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess the effects of canagliflozin on CV outcomes according to baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and urine albumin:creatinine ratio (UACR) in pooled patient-level data from the CANVAS Program and CREDENCE trial. METHODS: Canagliflozin effects on CV death or HHF were assessed by baseline eGFR (<45, 45-60, and >60 mL/min/1.73 m2) and UACR (<30, 30-300, and >300 mg/g). HRs and 95% CIs were estimated by using Cox regression models overall and according to subgroups. RESULTS: A total of 14,543 participants from the CANVAS Program (N = 10,142) and the CREDENCE (N = 4,401) trial were included, with a mean age of 63 years, 35% female, 75% White, 13.2% with baseline eGFR <45 mL/min/1.73 m2, and 31.9% with UACR >300 mg/g. Rates of CV death or HHF increased as eGFR declined and/or UACR increased. Canagliflozin significantly reduced CV death or HHF compared with placebo (19.4 vs 28.0 events per 1,000 patient-years; HR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.62-0.79), with consistent results across eGFR and UACR categories (all P interaction >0.40). CONCLUSIONS: Risk of CV death or HHF was higher in those with lower baseline eGFR and/or higher UACR. Canagliflozin consistently reduced CV death or HHF in participants with T2DM and high CV risk or nephropathy regardless of baseline renal function or level of albuminuria. (Canagliflozin Cardiovascular Assessment Study [CANVAS], NCT01032629; A Study of the Effects of Canagliflozin [JNJ-24831754] on Renal Endpoints in Adult Participants With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus [CANVAS-R], NCT01989754; and Evaluation of the Effects of Canagliflozin on Renal and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Participants With Diabetic Nephropathy [CREDENCE], NCT02065791).

Real-World Diagnosis and Treatment of Diabetic Kidney Disease.

INTRODUCTION: People with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD) have increased morbidity and mortality risk. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB) are recommended to slow kidney function decline in DKD. This representative, real-world data analysis of patients with T2DM was performed to detect onset of DKD and determine methods and timing of DKD diagnosis and time to initiation of ACEi/ARB therapy. METHODS: Patients diagnosed with T2DM before January 1, 2016 who developed DKD between January 1, 2017 and June 30, 2019 were identified from a longitudinal ambulatory electronic health record (EHR) dataset (Veradigm Inc). Each record was analyzed using the CLinical INTelligence engine (CLINT™, HealthPals, Inc.) to identify delays and gaps in diagnosing DKD. DKD was diagnosed through two reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR; < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2) measurements at least 90 days apart, a single elevated urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR; > 30 mg/g) measurement, or ICD-9/10 diagnosis codes for DKD and/or albuminuria. Time to diagnose (TTD), time to treat (TTT), and diagnosis to treatment time were assessed. RESULTS: Of 6,499,409 patients with T2DM before January 2016, 245,978 developed DKD between January 1, 2017 and June 30, 2019. In this DKD cohort, ca. 50% were first identified through EHR diagnosis and ca. 50% by UACR or eGFR lab-based diagnosis. In patients who had UACR/eGFR assessed, more than 90% exhibited DKD-level results on the first diagnostic test. Average TTD after eGFR labs was 2 years; average TTT with ACEi/ARB was 6-9 months after DKD lab evidence. The majority of patients who developed DKD received ACEi/ARB therapy 6-7 months after diagnosis. CONCLUSION: In a contemporary, large national cohort of patients with T2DM, progression to DKD was common but likely underrepresented. The low rate of DKD-screening labs, along with sizable delays in diagnosis of DKD and initiation of ACEi/ARB therapy, indicates that many patients who progress to DKD are not being properly treated.

Diabetic kidney disease is kidney disease that occurs in patients with type 2 diabetes and is associated with greater risk of death and other adverse cardiovascular and kidney outcomes. Unfortunately, diabetic kidney disease is underdiagnosed because of lack of awareness and its early asymptomatic presentation. Early detection and treatment of diabetic kidney disease with medicines such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (also known as ACE inhibitors) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (also known as ARBs) is important for the prevention of disease progression and the development of other serious conditions. This real-world analysis evaluated electronic health record data from more than 6 million patients with diabetes to detect the onset of diabetic kidney disease and to determine timing of treatment and gaps in medical care. Results from the study show that there are often significant delays in the diagnosis of diabetic kidney disease, even when laboratory evidence is available. Furthermore, many patients are not undergoing regular renal function testing, thus missing the opportunity for diagnosis (and subsequent treatment) of earlier onset, less severe disease. After diagnosis, patients with diabetic kidney disease experience significant delay until they receive appropriate treatment with an ACE inhibitor or ARB. The low rate of kidney function screening coupled with delays in diagnosis and treatment initiation suggest that many patients who progress to diabetic kidney disease are not being properly treated. The results from this study highlight the need to improve diagnostic and treatment protocols to address these significant gaps in care.

Relative and Absolute Risk Reductions in Cardiovascular and Kidney Outcomes With Canagliflozin Across KDIGO Risk Categories: Findings From the CANVAS Program.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Canagliflozin reduces the risk for cardiovascular and kidney outcomes in type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to assess the relative and absolute effects of canagliflozin on clinical outcomes across different KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) risk categories based on estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and urinary albumin-creatinine ratio. STUDY DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of the CANagliflozin cardioVascular Assessment Study (CANVAS) Program. SETTINGS & PARTICIPANTS: The CANVAS Program randomly assigned 10,142 participants with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk and with eGFR≥30mL/min/1.73m2 to treatment with canagliflozin or placebo. INTERVENTION(S): Canagliflozin or matching placebo. OUTCOMES: The primary outcome was a composite of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke, with a set of other cardiovascular and kidney prespecified outcomes. RESULTS: Of 10,142 participants, 10,031 (98.9%) had available baseline eGFR and urinary albumin-creatinine ratio data. The proportion of participants in low-, moderate-, high-, and very high-risk KDIGO categories was 58.6%, 25.8%, 10.6%, and 5.0%, respectively. The relative effect of canagliflozin on the primary outcome (HR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.75-0.97) was consistent across KDIGO risk categories (P trend=0.2), with similar results for other cardiovascular and kidney outcomes. Absolute reductions in the primary outcome were greater within higher KDIGO risk categories (P trend=0.03) with a similar pattern of effect for the composite of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for heart failure (P trend=0.06) and for chronic eGFR slope (P trend = 0.04). LIMITATIONS: Predominantly a low kidney risk population, relatively few participants in higher KDIGO risk categories, and exclusion of individuals with eGFR<30mL/min/1.73m2. CONCLUSIONS: Although the relative effects of canagliflozin are similar across KDIGO risk categories, absolute risk reductions are likely greater for individuals at higher KDIGO risk. The KDIGO classification system may be able to identify individuals who might derive greater benefits for end-organ protection from treatment with canagliflozin. FUNDING: This post hoc analysis was not specifically funded. The original CANVAS Program trials were funded by Janssen Research & Development, LLC and were conducted as a collaboration between the funder, an academic steering committee, and an academic research organization, George Clinical. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The original trials of the CANVAS Program were registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with study numbers NCT01032629 and NCT01989754.

Linear Projection of Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate Decline with Canagliflozin and Implications for Dialysis Utilization and Cost in Diabetic Nephropathy.

INTRODUCTION: Diabetes is a common cause of end-stage kidney disease leading to dialysis or kidney transplantation. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measures kidney function, and differences in the rate (slope) of eGFR decline can be used to assess treatment effects on kidney function over time. In the CREDENCE trial, the sodium glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitor canagliflozin slowed the rate of eGFR decline by 60% compared to placebo in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. This analysis utilized eGFR slopes from CREDENCE to estimate the difference in time to dialysis by treatment arm and estimated the economic value of that delay. METHODS: A linear decline in eGFR and maintenance of stable therapy were assumed for the canagliflozin and placebo arms in CREDENCE. Mean eGFR over time was calculated using acute (baseline to week 3) and chronic (week 3 onward) slopes. Reaching eGFR of 10 ml/min/1.73 m2 was assumed to represent the need for chronic dialysis. The difference in time to dialysis between treatments was calculated. Based on the average duration of dialysis, annual dialysis costs were determined, discounting 2020 US dollars at an inflation rate of 4%. RESULTS: Following the acute and chronic eGFR slopes, the projected time to dialysis was 22.85 years for canagliflozin and 9.90 years for placebo. Based on 95% confidence intervals from CREDENCE, the model-estimated difference in time to dialysis was 9.27-17.48 years. With a mean baseline participant age of 63 years, the delay in dialysis with canagliflozin would be associated with a reduction in dialysis costs of approximately $170,000 per patient in 2020 dollars. CONCLUSION: Using clinical trial data, canagliflozin treatment was projected to delay dialysis by approximately 13 years, which could translate to a substantial cost savings. More precise estimates should be investigated with considerations for nonlinear eGFR slope trajectory, competing risks, and patient characteristics. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier, NCT02065791.

Analysis of Nationwide Data to Determine the Incidence and Diagnosed Prevalence of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease in the USA: 2013-2015.

BACKGROUND: This study addresses an important gap, as it is the first US nationwide, epidemiologic study of ADPKD incidence and prevalence. SUMMARY: This 3-year, observational study utilized data from Truven Health MarketScan® administrative claims, as well as cross-sectional data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NAMCS). We estimated the annual incidence and diagnosed prevalence using population-based data on over 170 million de-identified patients to provide the most current epidemiologic estimates available. The ADPKD-diagnosed prevalence was 4.3 per 10,000 in the NAMCS, which closely corresponded with age-adjusted rates from patients with either commercial insurance or employer-sponsored Medicare supplemental insurance. The annual incidence was 0.62 per 10,000. Both nationwide data sets indicate that approximately 140,000 patients are currently diagnosed in the USA. We also found significant differences by gender and age. Females are nearly twice as likely as males to be diagnosed in early adulthood, while the incidence in males was highest in those aged 65 years or older. ADPKD appears more likely to be diagnosed in men after disease progression or the development of chronic kidney disease. KEY MESSAGES: Our results revealed striking age and gender differences in the incidence of ADPKD. Young women are diagnosed with ADPKD at nearly twice the rate of young men, perhaps due to the use of ultrasound in women during child-bearing years. This points to a need for increased recognition of ADPKD, with an emphasis on younger men in particular. ADPKD has been inaccurately perceived as a common condition based on misinterpretation of early epidemiologic data (1957) confirmed by our data and recent European data. ADPKD affects approximately 140,000 patients in the USA and meets the criterion for a rare disease. Our results indicate a need for further study of gender and ADPKD diagnosis, progression, management, and outcomes.

Plasma copeptin levels predict disease progression and tolvaptan efficacy in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

In the TEMPO 3:4 Trial, treatment with tolvaptan, a vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist, slowed the increase in total kidney volume and decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). We investigated whether plasma copeptin levels, a marker of plasma vasopressin, are associated with disease progression, and whether pre-treatment copeptin and treatment-induced change in copeptin are associated with tolvaptan treatment efficacy. This post hoc analysis included 1,280 TEMPO 3:4 participants (aged 18-50 years, estimated creatinine clearance ≥60 ml/min and total kidney volume ≥750 mL) who had plasma samples available at baseline for measurement of copeptin using an automated immunofluorescence assay. In placebo-treated subjects, baseline copeptin predicted kidney growth and eGFR decline over 3 years. These associations were independent of sex, age, and baseline eGFR, but were no longer statistically significant after additional adjustment for baseline total kidney volume. In tolvaptan-treated subjects, copeptin increased from baseline to week 3 (6.3 pmol/L versus 21.9 pmol/L, respectively). In tolvaptan-treated subjects with higher baseline copeptin levels, a larger treatment effect was noted with respect to kidney growth rate and eGFR decline. Tolvaptan-treated subjects with a larger percentage increase in copeptin from baseline to week 3 had a better disease outcome, with less kidney growth and eGFR decline after three years. Copeptin holds promise as a biomarker to predict outcome and tolvaptan treatment efficacy in ADPKD.

Standardizing total kidney volume measurements for clinical trials of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: The ability of unstandardized methods to track kidney growth in clinical trials for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) has not been critically evaluated. METHODS: The Tolvaptan Efficacy and Safety Management of ADPKD and its Outcomes (TEMPO) 3:4 study involved baseline and annual magnetic resonance follow-up imaging yearly for 3 years. Total kidney volume (TKV) measurements were performed on these four time points in addition to the baseline imaging in TEMPO 4:4, initially by Perceptive Informatics (Waltham, MA, USA) using planimetry (original dataset) and for this study by the Mayo Translational PKD Center using semiautomated and complementary automated methods (sequential dataset). In the original dataset, the same reader was assigned to all scans of individual patients in TEMPO 3:4, but readers were reassigned in TEMPO 4:4. Two placebo-treated cohorts were included. In the first (n = 158), intervals between the end of TEMPO 3:4 and the start of TEMPO 4:4 scan visits ranged from 12 to 403 days; in the second (n = 95), the same scan (measured twice) visit was used for both. RESULTS: Growth rates in TEMPO 3:4 were similar in the original and sequential datasets (5.5 and 5.9%/year). Growth rates during the TEMPO 3:4 to TEMPO 4:4 interval were higher in the original (13.7%/year) but were not different in the sequential dataset (4.0%/year). Comparing volumes from the same images, TKVs showed a bias of 2.2% [95% confidence interval (CI) -5.2-9.7] in the original and -0.16% (95% CI -1.91-1.58) in the sequential dataset. CONCLUSIONS: Despite using the same software, TKV and growth rate changes were present, likely due to reader differences in the transition from TEMPO 3:4 to TEMPO 4:4 in the original but not in the sequential dataset. Robust, standardized methods are essential in ADPKD trials to minimize errors in serial TKV measurements.

Multicenter, open-label, extension trial to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of early versus delayed treatment with tolvaptan in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: the TEMPO 4:4 Trial.

Background: In TEMPO 3:4, the vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed total kidney volume (TKV) growth and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline relative to placebo. Methods: TEMPO 4:4 was designed to provide an additional 2 years of data on the long-term safety and efficacy of tolvaptan in subjects completing TEMPO 3:4. The objective was to assess the disease-modifying effects of tolvaptan on TKV and eGFR end-points including change from baseline over the combined duration of TEMPO 3:4 and TEMPO 4:4, and non-inferiority of slopes during TEMPO 4:4. Results: Of the 1445 subjects randomized to TEMPO 3:4, 871 (60.3%) enrolled in TEMPO 4:4. Percent changes in TKV from TEMPO 3:4 baseline to TEMPO 4:4 Month 24 were 29.9% and 31.6% (prior tolvaptan versus prior placebo, P = 0.38). Adjusting for baseline covariates improved the TKV treatment difference at Month 24 in TEMPO 4:4 from -1.70% to - 4.15% between the groups (P = 0.04). Slopes of TKV growth during TEMPO 4:4 were higher in early- versus delayed-treatment groups (6.16% versus 4.96% per year, P = 0.05). Analysis of secondary eGFR endpoints demonstrated a persistent effect on eGFR (3.15 mL/min/1.73 m2, P < 0.001), and non-inferiority in eGFR slopes. The safety profile on exposure to tolvaptan in TEMPO 4:4 was similar to that in TEMPO 3:4. Conclusions: The results of TEMPO 4:4 support a sustained disease-modifying effect of tolvaptan on eGFR. The lack of a sustained treatment difference on TKV may be accounted for by limitations of the trial design, including loss of randomization and baseline imbalances ensuing TEMPO 3:4. The safety profile was similar to that observed in TEMPO 3:4.

Can we further enrich autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease clinical trials for rapidly progressive patients? Application of the PROPKD score in the TEMPO trial.

Background: The PROPKD score has been proposed to stratify the risk of progression to end-stage renal disease in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) subjects. We aimed to assess its prognostic value in a genotyped subgroup of subjects from the Tolvaptan Phase 3 Efficacy and Safety Study in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (TEMPO3/4) trial. Methods: In the post hoc analysis, PKD1 and PKD2 were screened in 770 subjects and the PROPKD score was calculated in mutation-positive subjects (male: 1 point; hypertension <35 years: 2 points; first urologic event <35 years: 2 points; nontruncating PKD1 mutation: 2 points; truncating PKD1 mutation: 4 points). Subjects were classified into low-risk (LR; 0-3 points), intermediate-risk (IR; 4-6 points) and high-risk (HR; 7-9 points) groups. Results: The PROPKD score was calculated in 749 subjects (LR = 132, IR = 344 and HR = 273); age was inversely related to risk (LR = 43.6 years, IR = 39.5 years, HR = 36.2 years; P < 0.001). Subjects from the HR group had significantly higher height-adjusted total kidney volume (TKV) and rates of TKV growth. While baseline renal function was similar across all risk groups, the rate of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decline significantly increased from LR to HR in the placebo group. Tolvaptan treatment effectiveness to reduce TKV growth was similar in all three risk categories. While tolvaptan significantly slowed eGFR decline in the IR (tolvaptan = -2.34 versus placebo = -3.33 mL/min/1.73 m2/year; P = 0.008) and HR groups (tolvaptan = -2.74 versus placebo = -3.94 mL/min/1.73 m2/year; P = 0.002), there was no difference in the LR group (tolvaptan = -2.35 versus placebo = -2.50 mL/min/1.73 m2/year; P = 0.72). Excluding the LR subjects from the analysis improved the apparent treatment effect of tolvaptan on eGFR decline. Conclusion: This study confirms the prognostic value of the PROPKD score and suggests that it could reduce costs and enhance endpoint sensitivity by enriching future study populations for rapidly progressing ADPKD subjects.

Tolerability of Aquaretic-Related Symptoms Following Tolvaptan for Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: Results From TEMPO 3:4.

INTRODUCTION: In the randomized placebo-controlled Tolvaptan Efficacy and Safety in Management of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease and its Outcomes (TEMPO) 3:4 trial, tolvaptan slowed kidney growth and renal function decline in subjects with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Consistent with its primary pharmacologic activity, tolvaptan use was commonly associated with aquaretic adverse events (AAEs) attributable to excess free water clearance. METHODS: A post hoc analysis of tolvaptan-related discontinuations from the pivotal randomized controlled trial TEMPO 3:4 and its open-label extension TEMPO 4:4. RESULTS: In total, 750 of 961 tolvaptan-treated subjects (78%) in TEMPO 3:4 reported at least one AAE. Of these 750 subjects, 72 (10%) discontinued because of an AAE (aquaretic-discontinued group) and 573 (76%) continued (aquaretic-continued group). The aquaretic-discontinued subjects were younger, had better baseline renal function, and had higher fasting urine osmolality than aquaretic-continued subjects. Of the 750 subjects reporting an AAE, 105 (14%) discontinued for another reason (non-aquaretic-discontinued group). Compared to non-aquaretic-discontinued subjects, aquaretic-discontinued subjects were more commonly male, had better baseline renal function, and discontinued the study drug faster. After 3 years of therapy, 75% of tolvaptan subjects indicated that they could tolerate their current dose for the rest of their lives, compared to 85% of placebo subjects. These findings were corroborated by results in the open-label extension trial TEMPO 4:4. DISCUSSION: In this study, AAEs were common but well tolerated in ADPKD patients on tolvaptan. ADPKD patients in earlier stages of disease progression may be more sensitive to aquaretic symptoms, which may help in guiding tolvaptan dosing and titration decisions in the future.

Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND: In a previous trial involving patients with early autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD; estimated creatinine clearance, ≥60 ml per minute), the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume and the decline in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) but also caused more elevations in aminotransferase and bilirubin levels. The efficacy and safety of tolvaptan in patients with later-stage ADPKD are unknown. METHODS: We conducted a phase 3, randomized withdrawal, multicenter, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. After an 8-week prerandomization period that included sequential placebo and tolvaptan run-in phases, during which each patient's ability to take tolvaptan without dose-limiting side effects was assessed, 1370 patients with ADPKD who were either 18 to 55 years of age with an estimated GFR of 25 to 65 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area or 56 to 65 years of age with an estimated GFR of 25 to 44 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive tolvaptan or placebo for 12 months. The primary end point was the change in the estimated GFR from baseline to follow-up, with adjustment for the exact duration that each patient participated (interpolated to 1 year). Safety assessments were conducted monthly. RESULTS: The change from baseline in the estimated GFR was -2.34 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 (95% confidence interval [CI], -2.81 to -1.87) in the tolvaptan group, as compared with -3.61 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 (95% CI, -4.08 to -3.14) in the placebo group (difference, 1.27 ml per minute per 1.73 m2; 95% CI, 0.86 to 1.68; P<0.001). Elevations in the alanine aminotransferase level (to >3 times the upper limit of the normal range) occurred in 38 of 681 patients (5.6%) in the tolvaptan group and in 8 of 685 (1.2%) in the placebo group. Elevations in the aminotransferase level were reversible after stopping tolvaptan. No elevations in the bilirubin level of more than twice the upper limit of the normal range were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Tolvaptan resulted in a slower decline than placebo in the estimated GFR over a 1-year period in patients with later-stage ADPKD. (Funded by Otsuka Pharmaceuticals and Otsuka Pharmaceutical Development and Commercialization; REPRISE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02160145 .).

Performance of an Artificial Multi-observer Deep Neural Network for Fully Automated Segmentation of Polycystic Kidneys.

Deep learning techniques are being rapidly applied to medical imaging tasks-from organ and lesion segmentation to tissue and tumor classification. These techniques are becoming the leading algorithmic approaches to solve inherently difficult image processing tasks. Currently, the most critical requirement for successful implementation lies in the need for relatively large datasets that can be used for training the deep learning networks. Based on our initial studies of MR imaging examinations of the kidneys of patients affected by polycystic kidney disease (PKD), we have generated a unique database of imaging data and corresponding reference standard segmentations of polycystic kidneys. In the study of PKD, segmentation of the kidneys is needed in order to measure total kidney volume (TKV). Automated methods to segment the kidneys and measure TKV are needed to increase measurement throughput and alleviate the inherent variability of human-derived measurements. We hypothesize that deep learning techniques can be leveraged to perform fast, accurate, reproducible, and fully automated segmentation of polycystic kidneys. Here, we describe a fully automated approach for segmenting PKD kidneys within MR images that simulates a multi-observer approach in order to create an accurate and robust method for the task of segmentation and computation of TKV for PKD patients. A total of 2000 cases were used for training and validation, and 400 cases were used for testing. The multi-observer ensemble method had mean ± SD percent volume difference of 0.68 ± 2.2% compared with the reference standard segmentations. The complete framework performs fully automated segmentation at a level comparable with interobserver variability and could be considered as a replacement for the task of segmentation of PKD kidneys by a human.

Tolvaptan use in cancer patients with hyponatremia due to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone: a post hoc analysis of the SALT-1 and SALT-2 trials.

Hyponatremia is a common electrolyte disorder in cancer patients and has been associated with poor prognosis. A frequent cause of cancer-related hyponatremia is the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH). This study was a post hoc subgroup analysis of the SALT-1 (Study of Ascending Levels of Tolvaptan in Hyponatremia) and SALT-2 clinical trials. Hyponatremic subjects with SIADH and cancer received the oral selective vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan (n = 12) or matching placebo (n = 16) once-daily for 30 days. The initial tolvaptan dose (15 mg) was titrated over 4 days to 30 or 60 mg per day, as needed, according to serum sodium level and tolerability. Baseline serum sodium levels in the SIADH/cancer cohort of the SALT trials was 130 and 128 mEq/L for tolvaptan and placebo, respectively. Mean change from baseline in average daily serum sodium AUC for tolvaptan relative to placebo was 5.0 versus -0.3 mEq/L (P < 0.0001) at day 4, and 6.9 versus 1.0 mEq/L (P < 0.0001) at day 30; the observed treatment effects were similar to those in the overall SIADH population (i.e., with and without cancer) at both time points. Serum sodium normalization was observed in 6/12 and 0/13 subjects at day 4 and 7/8 and 2/6 subjects at day 30 in the tolvaptan and placebo groups, respectively (P < 0.05 for both). Common treatment-emergent AEs for tolvaptan were consistent with previously reported results. In this post hoc study of the SALT trial population, oral tolvaptan was an effective and safe therapy for the treatment of hyponatremia in subjects with SIADH and cancer.

Rationale and Design of a Clinical Trial Investigating Tolvaptan Safety and Efficacy in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND: In TEMPO 3:4, the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed kidney growth and function decline in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients with relatively preserved kidney function. METHODS: Prospective, phase 3b, multi-center, randomized-withdrawal, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of tolvaptan in ADPKD patients with late stage 2 to early stage 4 chronic kidney disease (CKD). The primary endpoint was estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) change from pre-treatment baseline to post-treatment follow-up. Secondary endpoints included annualized eGFR slope, incidence of ADPKD complications, and overall and hepatic safety profiles. Participants were 18-55 year-old ADPKD patients with baseline eGFR ≥25 and ≤65 mL/min/1.73 m2 or 56-65 year-old with eGFR ≥25 and ≤44 mL/min/1.73 m2 and evidence of eGFR decline >2.0 mL/min/1.73 m2 per year. Daily split doses of tolvaptan were titrated to tolerance (30/15, 45/15, 60/30, or 90/30 mg) and maintained for 12 months, after an 8-week pre-randomization period to screen out subjects unable to tolerate at least 60/30 mg for 3 weeks. RESULTS: Of 1,495 subjects who entered the tolvaptan titration period, 125 (8.4%) discontinued the study before randomization. One thousand three hundred seventy subjects (684 tolvaptan, 686 placebo) from 213 centers across 21 countries were randomized. Baseline demographics were well balanced across treatment arms. Information collected during the study included eGFR, survey scores (PKD history and outcome), adverse events, vital signs, hematology, urinalysis, and serum chemistry tests. CONCLUSION: Replicating Evidence of Preserved Renal Function: An Investigation of Tolvaptan Safety and Efficacy (REPRISE) determines whether tolvaptan administered over 1 year exhibits disease-modifying properties in ADPKD patients with late stage 2 to early stage 4 CKD, which provides an important therapeutic advancement for this difficult-to-treat disease.

Prevalence of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease in the European Union.

BACKGROUND: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is a leading cause of end-stage renal disease, but estimates of its prevalence vary by >10-fold. The objective of this study was to examine the public health impact of ADPKD in the European Union (EU) by estimating minimum prevalence (point prevalence of known cases) and screening prevalence (minimum prevalence plus cases expected after population-based screening). METHODS: A review of the epidemiology literature from January 1980 to February 2015 identified population-based studies that met criteria for methodological quality. These examined large German and British populations, providing direct estimates of minimum prevalence and screening prevalence. In a second approach, patients from the 2012 European Renal Association‒European Dialysis and Transplant Association (ERA-EDTA) Registry and literature-based inflation factors that adjust for disease severity and screening yield were used to estimate prevalence across 19 EU countries (N = 407 million). RESULTS: Population-based studies yielded minimum prevalences of 2.41 and 3.89/10 000, respectively, and corresponding estimates of screening prevalences of 3.3 and 4.6/10 000. A close correspondence existed between estimates in countries where both direct and registry-derived methods were compared, which supports the validity of the registry-based approach. Using the registry-derived method, the minimum prevalence was 3.29/10 000 (95% confidence interval 3.27-3.30), and if ADPKD screening was implemented in all countries, the expected prevalence was 3.96/10 000 (3.94-3.98). CONCLUSIONS: ERA-EDTA-based prevalence estimates and application of a uniform definition of prevalence to population-based studies consistently indicate that the ADPKD point prevalence is <5/10 000, the threshold for rare disease in the EU.

Tolvaptan suppresses monocyte chemotactic protein-1 excretion in autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by multitudes of expanding renal cysts associated with mononuclear interstitial infiltrates. Monocyte chemotactic protein-1 is produced in the kidneys and excreted in the urine (uMCP1) of these patients in increased amounts. In the TEMPO 3:4 trial, tolvaptan slowed the rate of increase in total kidney volume (TKV) and the rate of decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). In a sub-analysis, we determined whether tolvaptan administration for up to 3 years changed the urinary excretion of MCP-1 referenced to creatinine in 869 treated subjects compared with 438 placebo subjects. METHODS: Treatment group differences of uMCP1 at 0.75, 12, 24 and 36 months were evaluated by ANCOVA with factor of treatment and covariate baseline. RESULTS: At baseline, mean uMCP1 was 429 ± 224 pg/mg in the tolvaptan and 434 ± 233 pg/mg in the placebo groups, ∼4-fold greater than normal. Log uMCP1 associated positively with log TKV ( r = 0.2645, P < 0.0001) and negatively with eGFR ( r = -0.1555 P < 0.0001) and fasting urine osmolality ( r = -0.1933, P < 0.0001). Tolvaptan reduced uMCP1 13.8 ± 4.4% (P < 0.0001) below placebo-treated subjects at 24 months and 14.4 ± 3.7% (P < 0.0001) at 36 months, and to the same extent in females and males. The effect of tolvaptan on uMCP1 excretion at 36 months extended across CKD Stage 1 (11.1 ± 6.4%, P = 0.0595), CKD 2 (13.9 ± 5.4%, P = 0.0050) and CKD 3 (21.4 ± 8.0%, P = 0.0020). CONCLUSION: Tolvaptan, administered for 3 years to patients with ADPKD, caused a sustained reduction in the urinary excretion of MCP-1 relative to placebo.

Urine Osmolality, Response to Tolvaptan, and Outcome in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: Results from the TEMPO 3:4 Trial.

The vasopressin-cAMP-osmolality axis is abnormal in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). In the Tolvaptan Efficacy and Safety in Management of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease and Its Outcomes 3:4 Trial, a 3-year randomized, placebo-controlled trial in adults, the vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed ADPKD progression in patients with preserved GFR. Here, we investigated the determinants of baseline urine osmolality (Uosm) and its value as a severity marker of ADPKD, the factors influencing the response to tolvaptan, and whether change in Uosm associated with key trial end points. At baseline, lower Uosm independently associated with female sex, presence of hypertension, lower eGFR, higher total kidney volume (TKV), and higher age. Tolvaptan consistently reduced Uosm by 200-300 mOsm/kg over 36 months. The Uosm response to tolvaptan depended on baseline eGFR and Uosm. Subjects with greater change in Uosm experienced a significant reduction in clinical progression events. Among subjects receiving tolvaptan, those with a greater suppression of Uosm had slower renal function decline. Assessment at follow-up, off medication, revealed a significant decrease in Uosm in both placebo and treated groups. Tolvaptan significantly increased plasma osmolality, which returned to baseline at follow-up. In conclusion, baseline Uosm in ADPKD reflects age, renal function, and TKV, and baseline Uosm, eGFR, and TKV influence the effect of tolvaptan on Uosm. The greatest renal benefit occurred in subjects achieving greater suppression of Uosm, that is, those with better eGFR at baseline. These results support the link between vasopressin V2 receptor signaling and ADPKD progression.

Tolvaptan and Kidney Pain in Patients With Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: Secondary Analysis From a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Kidney pain is a common complication in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), and data from the TEMPO 3:4 trial suggested that tolvaptan, a vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist, may have a positive effect on kidney pain in this patient group. Because pain is difficult to measure, the incidence of kidney pain leading to objective medical interventions was used in the present study to assess pain. STUDY DESIGN: Secondary analysis from a randomized controlled trial. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: Patients with ADPKD with preserved kidney function. INTERVENTION: Tolvaptan or placebo. OUTCOMES: Kidney pain events defined by objective medical interventions. MEASUREMENTS: Kidney pain events were recorded and independently adjudicated. Incidence of a first kidney pain event was assessed overall and categorized into 5 subgroups according to severity. RESULTS: Of 1,445 participating patients (48.4% women; mean age, 39±7 [SD] years; mean estimated glomerular filtration rate, 81±22mL/min/1.73m2; median total kidney volume, 1,692 [IQR, 750-7,555] mL), 50.9% reported a history of kidney pain at baseline. History of urinary tract infections, kidney stones, or hematuria (all P<0.001) and female sex (P<0.001) were significantly associated with history of kidney pain. Tolvaptan use resulted in a significantly lower incidence of kidney pain events when compared to placebo: 10.1% versus 16.8% (P<0.001), with a risk reduction of 36% (HR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.48-0.86). The reduction in pain event incidence by tolvaptan was found in all groups irrespective of pain severity and was independent of predisposing factors (P for interaction > 0.05). The effect of tolvaptan was explained at least in part by a decrease in incidence of urinary tract infections, kidney stones, and hematuria when compared to placebo. LIMITATIONS: Trial has specific inclusion criteria for total kidney volume and kidney function. CONCLUSIONS: Tolvaptan decreased the incidence of kidney pain events independent of patient characteristics predisposing for kidney pain and possibly in part due to reductions in ADPKD-related complications.

Effect of Tolvaptan in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease by CKD Stage: Results from the TEMPO 3:4 Trial.

BACKGROUND: and objectives The Tolvaptan Efficacy and Safety in Management of Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease and Its Outcomes 3:4 study demonstrated a significant beneficial effect of the vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist tolvaptan on rates of kidney growth and eGFR decline in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). This post hoc analysis was performed to reassess the primary and secondary efficacy endpoints by CKD stage at baseline. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: In a phase 3, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 3-year trial, 1445 patients with ADPKD (age 18-50 years), with total kidney volume (TKV) ≥750 ml and estimated creatinine clearance ≥60 ml/min, were randomly assigned 2:1 to split-dose tolvaptan (45/15, 60/30, or 90/30 mg daily as tolerated) or placebo. The primary endpoint was annualized rate of TKV change. Secondary endpoints included a composite endpoint of time to multiple composite ADPKD-related events (worsening kidney function, kidney pain, hypertension, and albuminuria) and rate of kidney function decline. RESULTS: Tolvaptan reduced annualized TKV growth by 1.99%, 3.12%, and 2.61% per year (all P<0.001; subgroup-treatment interaction, P=0.17) and eGFR decline by 0.40 in CKD1 (P=0.23), 1.13 in CKD2 (P<0.001) and 1.66 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) per year in CKD3 (P<0.001) with a trend for a positive subgroup-treatment interaction (P=0.07) across CKD1, CKD2 and CKD3. ADPKD-related events were less frequent in tolvaptan recipients than in placebo recipients among those with CKD1 (hazard ratio [HR], 0.83; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.70-0.98; P=0.03) and those with CKD 3 (HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.57-0.89; P=0.003), but not among those with CKD2 (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.85-1.21; P=0.86). Aquaresis-related adverse events (more frequent in the tolvaptan group) and ADPKD-related adverse events (more frequent in the placebo group) were not associated with CKD stage. Hypernatremia events in tolvaptan-treated patients with CKD3 and plasma aminotransferase elevations in tolvaptan-treated patients across CKD stages 1-3 occurred more frequently than in placebo recipients. CONCLUSIONS: This post hoc analysis suggests clinically similar beneficial effects of tolvaptan in ADPKD across CKD stages 1-3.