Outer Membrane Integrity-Dependent Fluorescence of the Japanese Eel UnaG Protein in Live Escherichia coli Cells.

Reporter genes are important tools in many biological disciplines. The discovery of novel reporter genes is relatively rare. However, known reporter genes are constantly applied to novel applications. This study reports the performance of the bilirubin-dependent fluorescent protein UnaG from the Japanese eel Anguilla japonicas in live Escherichia coli cells in response to the disruption of outer membrane (OM) integrity at low bilirubin (BR) concentrations. Using the E. coli wild-type strain MC4100, its isogenic OM-deficient mutant strain NR698, and different OM-active compounds, we show that BR uptake and UnaG fluorescence depend on a leaky OM at concentrations of 10 µM BR and below, while fluorescence is mostly OM integrity-independent at concentrations above 50 µM BR. We suggest that these properties of the UnaG-BR couple might be applied as a biosensor as an alternative to the OM integrity assays currently in use.

Investigation of tetrasubstituted heterocycles reveals hydantoins as a promising scaffold for development of novel antimicrobials with membranolytic properties.

Mimics of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been proposed as a promising class of antimicrobial agents. We report the analysis of five tetrasubstituted, cationic, amphipathic heterocycles as potential AMP mimics. The analysis showed that the heterocyclic scaffold had a strong influence on the haemolytic activity of the compounds, and the hydantoin scaffold was identified as a promising template for drug lead development. Subsequently, a total of 20 hydantoin derivatives were studied for their antimicrobial potency and haemolytic activity. We found 19 of these derivatives to have very low haemolytic toxicity and identified three lead structures, 2dA, 6cG, and 6dG with very promising broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Lead structure 6dG displayed minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values as low as 1 µg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria and 4-16 µg/mL against Gram-negative bacteria. Initial mode of action (MoA) studies performed on the amine derivative 6cG, utilizing a luciferase-based biosensor assay, suggested a strong membrane disrupting effect on the outer and inner membrane of Escherichia coli. Our findings show that the physical properties and structural arrangement induced by the heterocyclic scaffolds are important factors in the design of AMP mimics.

Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activity of Short Analogues of the Marine Antimicrobial Peptide Turgencin A: Effects of SAR Optimizations, Cys-Cys Cyclization and Lipopeptide Modifications.

We have synthesised short analogues of the marine antimicrobial peptide Turgencin A from the colonial Arctic ascidian Synoicum turgens. In this study, we focused on a central, cationic 12-residue Cys-Cys loop region within the sequence. Modified (tryptophan- and arginine-enriched) linear peptides were compared with Cys-Cys cyclic derivatives, and both linear and Cys-cyclic peptides were N-terminally acylated with octanoic acid (C8), decanoic acid (C10) or dodecanoic acid (C12). The highest antimicrobial potency was achieved by introducing dodecanoic acid to a cyclic Turgencin A analogue with low intrinsic hydrophobicity, and by introducing octanoic acid to a cyclic analogue displaying a higher intrinsic hydrophobicity. Among all tested synthetic Turgencin A lipopeptide analogues, the most promising candidates regarding both antimicrobial and haemolytic activity were C12-cTurg-1 and C8-cTurg-2. These optimized cyclic lipopeptides displayed minimum inhibitory concentrations of 4 µg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and the fungus Rhodothorula sp. Mode of action studies on bacteria showed a rapid membrane disruption and bactericidal effect of the cyclic lipopeptides. Haemolytic activity against human erythrocytes was low, indicating favorable selective targeting of bacterial cells.

A concise SAR-analysis of antimicrobial cationic amphipathic barbiturates for an improved activity-toxicity profile.

An amphipathic barbiturate mimic of the marine eusynstyelamides is reported as a promising class of antimicrobial agents. We hereby report a detailed analysis of the structure-activity relationship for cationic amphipathic N,N'-dialkylated-5,5-disubstituted barbiturates. The influence of various cationic groups, hydrocarbon linkers and lipophilic side chains on the compounds' antimicrobial potency and haemolytic activity was studied. A comprehensive library of 58 compounds was prepared using a concise synthetic strategy. We found cationic amine and guanidyl groups to yield the highest broad-spectrum activity and cationic trimethylated quaternary amine groups to exert narrow-spectrum activity against Gram-positive bacteria. n-Propyl hydrocarbon linkers proved to be the best compromise between potency and haemolytic activity. The combination of two different lipophilic side chains allowed for further fine-tuning of the biological properties. Using these insights, we were able to prepare both, the potent narrow-spectrum barbiturate 8a and the broad-spectrum barbiturates 11lG, 13jA and 13jG, all having low or no haemolytic activity. The guanidine derivative 11lG demonstrated a strong membrane disrupting effect in luciferase-based assays. We believe that these results may be valuable in further development of antimicrobial lead structures.

Amphipathic Barbiturates as Mimics of Antimicrobial Peptides and the Marine Natural Products Eusynstyelamides with Activity against Multi-resistant Clinical Isolates.

We report a series of synthetic cationic amphipathic barbiturates inspired by the pharmacophore model of small antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and the marine antimicrobials eusynstyelamides. These N,N'-dialkylated-5,5-disubstituted barbiturates consist of an achiral barbiturate scaffold with two cationic groups and two lipophilic side chains. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of 2-8 µg/mL were achieved against 30 multi-resistant clinical isolates of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including isolates with extended spectrum ß-lactamase-carbapenemase production. The guanidine barbiturate 7e (3,5-di-Br) demonstrated promising in vivo antibiotic efficacy in mice infected with clinical isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae using a neutropenic peritonitis model. Mode of action studies showed a strong membrane disrupting effect and was supported by nuclear magnetic resonance and molecular dynamics simulations. The results express how the pharmacophore model of small AMPs and the structure of the marine eusynstyelamides can be used to design highly potent lead peptidomimetics against multi-resistant bacteria.

Isolation and Characterization of Antimicrobial Peptides with Unusual Disulfide Connectivity from the Colonial Ascidian Synoicum turgens.

This study reports the isolation of two novel cysteine-rich antibacterial peptides, turgencin A and turgencin B, along with their oxidized derivatives, from the Arctic marine colonial ascidian Synoicum turgens. The peptides are post-translationally modified, containing six cysteines with an unusual disulfide connectivity of Cys1-Cys6, Cys2-Cys5, and Cys3-Cys4 and an amidated C-terminus. Furthermore, the peptides contain methionine residues resulting in the isolation of peptides with different degrees of oxidation. The most potent peptide, turgencin AMox1 with one oxidized methionine, displayed antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) as low as 0.4 µM against selected bacterial strains. In addition, the peptide inhibited the growth of the melanoma cancer cell line A2058 (IC50 = 1.4 µM) and the human fibroblast cell line MRC-5 (IC50 = 4.8 µM). The results from this study show that natural peptides isolated from marine tunicates have the potential to be promising drug leads.

Amphipathic sulfonamidobenzamides mimicking small antimicrobial marine natural products; investigation of antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against antibiotic resistant clinical isolates.

There is an urgent need for novel antimicrobial agents to address the threat of bacterial resistance to modern society. We have used a structural motif found in antimicrobial marine hit compounds as a basis for synthesizing a library of antimicrobial sulfonamidobenzamide lead compounds. Potent in vitro antimicrobial activity against clinically relevant bacterial strains was demonstrated for two compounds, G6 and J18, with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 4-16 µg/ml against clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE). The two compounds G6 and J18, together with several other compounds of this library, also caused ≥90% eradication of pre-established biofilm of methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis (MRSE) at 40 µg/ml. Using a luciferase assay, the mechanism of action of G6 was shown to resemble the biocide chlorhexidine by targeting the bacterial cell membrane.

The antimicrobial effect of CEN1HC-Br against Propionibacterium acnes and its therapeutic and anti-inflammatory effects on acne vulgaris.

Propionibacterium acnes is a commensal bacterium, which is involved in acne inflammation. An antimicrobial peptide named CEN1HC-Br, which was isolated and characterized form the green sea urchin, has been shown to possess broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. Little is known concerning the potential effects of its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties against P. acnes. To examine the potency of CEN1HC-Br in acne treatment, we conducted experiments to analyze the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities of CEN1HC-Br both in vitro and in vivo. The antimicrobial activity of CEN1HC-Br was evaluated by minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays using the broth dilution method. To elucidate the in vitro anti-inflammatory effect, HaCaT cells and human monocytes were treated with different concentration of CEN1HC-Br after stimulation by P. acnes. The expression of TLR2 and the secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-1ß, TNF-α, IL-12, respectively, were measured by enzyme immunoassays. An evaluation of P. acnes-induced ear edema in rat ear was conducted to compare the in vivo antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effect of CEN1HC-Br, the expression of IL-8, TNF-α, MMP-2 and TLR2 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and real time-PCR. CEN1HC-Br showed stronger antimicrobial activity against P. acnes than clindamycin. CEN1HC-Br significantly reduced the expression of interleukin IL-12p40, IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α and TLR2 in monocytes, but they were not influenced by clindamycin. Both CEN1HC-Br and Clindamycin attenuated P. acnes-induced ear swelling in rat along with pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8, TNF-α, MMP-2 and TLR2. Our data demonstrates that CEN1HC-Br is bactericidal against P. acnes and that it has an anti-inflammatory effect on monocytes. The anti-inflammatory effect may partially occur through TLR2 down-regulation, triggering an innate immune response and the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of small cationic amphipathic aminobenzamide marine natural product mimics and evaluation of relevance against clinical isolates including ESBL-CARBA producing multi-resistant bacteria.

A library of small aminobenzamide derivatives was synthesised to explore a cationic amphipathic motif found in marine natural antimicrobials. The most potent compound E23 displayed minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.5-2µg/ml against several Gram-positive bacterial strains, including methicillin resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE).E23 was also potent against 275 clinical isolates including Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, as well as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and ESBL-CARBA producing multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. The study demonstrates how structural motifs found in marine natural antimicrobials can be a valuable source for making novel antimicrobial lead-compounds.

Inner membrane proteins YgdD and SbmA are required for the complete susceptibility of Escherichia coli to the proline-rich antimicrobial peptide arasin 1(1-25).

Arasin 1 from the spider crab Hyas araneus is a proline-rich antimicrobial peptide (PR-AMP), which kills target bacteria by a non-membranolytic mechanism. By using a fluorescent derivative of the peptide, we showed that arasin 1 rapidly penetrates into Escherichia coli cells without membrane damage. To unravel its mode of action, a knockout gene library of E. coli was screened and two types of mutants with a less susceptible phenotype to the arasin 1 fragment (1-23) were found. The first bore the mutation of sbmA, a gene coding for an inner membrane protein involved in the uptake of different antibiotic peptides. The second mutation was located in the ygdD gene, coding for a conserved inner membrane protein of unknown function. Functional studies showed that YgdD is required for the full susceptibility to arasin 1(1-25), possibly by supporting its uptake and/or intracellular action. These results indicated that different bacterial proteins are exploited by arasin 1(1-25) to exert its antibacterial activity and add new insights on the complex mode of action of PR-AMPs.

Antimicrobial peptides in echinoderm host defense.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are important effector molecules in innate immunity. Here we briefly summarize characteristic traits of AMPs and their mechanisms of antimicrobial activity. Echinoderms live in a microbe-rich marine environment and are known to express a wide range of AMPs. We address two novel AMP families from coelomocytes of sea urchins: cysteine-rich AMPs (strongylocins) and heterodimeric AMPs (centrocins). These peptide families have conserved preprosequences, are present in both adults and pluteus stage larvae, have potent antimicrobial properties, and therefore appear to be important innate immune effectors. Strongylocins have a unique cysteine pattern compared to other cysteine-rich peptides, which suggests a novel AMP folding pattern. Centrocins and SdStrongylocin 2 contain brominated tryptophan residues in their native form. This review also includes AMPs isolated from other echinoderms, such as holothuroidins, fragments of beta-thymosin, and fragments of lectin (CEL-III). Echinoderm AMPs are crucial molecules for the understanding of echinoderm immunity, and their potent antimicrobial activity makes them potential precursors of novel drug leads.

Expression of antimicrobial peptides in coelomocytes and embryos of the green sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis).

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) play a crucial role in innate immunity. We have previously reported the isolation and characterization of the AMPs, strongylocins 1 and 2, and centrocin 1, from coelomocyte extracts of Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Here we show that these AMPs were expressed in phagocytes. In addition, transcripts of strongylocin 1 were detected in vibratile cells and/or colorless spherule cells, while transcripts of strongylocin 2 were found in red spherule cells. Results from immunoblotting and immunocytochemistry studies showed that centrocin 1 was produced by phagocytes and stored in granular vesicles. Co-localization of centrocin 1 and phagocytosed bacteria suggests that the granular vesicles containing centrocin 1 may be involved in the formation of phagolysosomes. We also analyzed the temporal and spatial expression of AMPs throughout larval development. Strongylocins were expressed in the early pluteus stage, while centrocin 1 was expressed in the mid pluteus stage. The spatial expression pattern showed that centrocin 1 was mainly located in blastocoelar cells (BCs) around the stomach and the esophagus. In addition, a few patrolling BCs were detected in some larval arms. Together, these results suggest that AMPs are expressed in different types of coelomocytes and that centrocin 1 is involved in response against bacteria. Furthermore, the expression of AMPs in larval pluteus stage, especially in BCs, indicates that AMPs and BCs are engaged in the larval immune system.

Structure-activity relationships of the antimicrobial peptide arasin 1 - and mode of action studies of the N-terminal, proline-rich region.

Arasin 1 is a 37 amino acid long proline-rich antimicrobial peptide isolated from the spider crab, Hyas araneus. In this work the active region of arasin 1 was identified through structure-activity studies using different peptide fragments derived from the arasin 1 sequence. The pharmacophore was found to be located in the proline/arginine-rich NH(2) terminus of the peptide and the fragment arasin 1(1-23) was almost equally active to the full length peptide. Arasin 1 and its active fragment arasin 1(1-23) were shown to be non-toxic to human red blood cells and arasin 1(1-23) was able to bind chitin, a component of fungal cell walls and the crustacean shell. The mode of action of the fully active N-terminal arasin 1(1-23) was explored through killing kinetic and membrane permeabilization studies. At the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), arasin 1(1-23) was not bactericidal and had no membrane disruptive effect. In contrast, at concentrations of 5×MIC and above it was bactericidal and interfered with membrane integrity. We conclude that arasin 1(1-23) has a different mode of action than lytic peptides, like cecropin P1. Thus, we suggest a dual mode of action for arasin 1(1-23) involving membrane disruption at peptide concentrations above MIC, and an alternative mechanism of action, possibly involving intracellular targets, at MIC.

Functional and structural studies of a novel cold-adapted esterase from an Arctic intertidal metagenomic library.

A novel cold-adapted lipolytic enzyme gene, est97, was identified from a high Arctic intertidal zone sediment metagenomic library. The deduced amino acid sequence of Est97 showed low similarity with other lipolytic enzymes, the maximum being 30 % identity with a putative lipase from Vibrio caribbenthicus. Common features of lipolytic enzymes, such as the GXSXG sequence motif, were detected. The gene product was over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. The recombinant Est97 (rEst97) hydrolysed various ρ-nitrophenyl esters with the best substrate being ρ-nitrophenyl hexanoate (K m and k cat of 39 µM and 25.8 s(-1), respectively). This esterase activity of rEst97 was optimal at 35 °C and pH 7.5 and the enzyme was unstable at temperatures above 25 °C. The apparent melting temperature, as determined by differential scanning calorimetry was 39 °C, substantiating Est97 as a cold-adapted esterase. The crystal structure of rEst97 was determined by the single wavelength anomalous dispersion method to 1.6 Å resolution. The protein was found to have a typical α/ß-hydrolase fold with Ser144-His226-Asp197 as the catalytic triad. A suggested, relatively short lid domain of rEst97 is composed of residues 80-114, which form an α-helix and a disordered loop. The cold adaptation features seem primarily related to a high number of methionine and glycine residues and flexible loops in the high-resolution structures.

Anti-infectious and anti-inflammatory effects of peptide fragments sequentially derived from the antimicrobial peptide centrocin 1 isolated from the green sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis.

Bacterial resistance against antibiotic treatment has become a major threat to public health. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have emerged as promising alternative agents for treatment of infectious diseases. This study characterizes novel synthetic peptides sequentially derived from the AMP centrocin 1, isolated from the green sea urchin, for their applicability as anti-infective agents.The microbicidal effect of centrocin 1 heavy chain (CEN1 HC-Br), its debrominated analogue (CEN1 HC), the C-terminal truncated variants of both peptides, i.e. CEN1 HC-Br (1-20) and CEN1 HC (1-20), as well as the cysteine to serine substituted equivalent CEN1 HC (Ser) was evaluated using minimal microbicidal concentration assay. The anti-inflammatory properties were assessed by measuring the inhibition of secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. All the peptides tested exhibited marked microbicidal and anti-inflammatory properties. No difference in efficacy was seen comparing CEN1 HC-Br and CEN1 HC, while the brominated variant had higher cytotoxicity. C-terminal truncation of both peptides reduced salt-tolerability of the microbicidal effect as well as anti-inflammatory actions. Also, serine substitution of cysteine residue decreased the microbicidal effect. Thus, from the peptide variants tested, CEN1 HC showed the best efficacy and safety profile. Further, CEN1 HC significantly reduced bacterial counts in two different animal models of infected wounds, while Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) failed to develop resistance against this peptide under continued selection pressure. In summary, CEN1 HC appears a promising new antimicrobial agent, and clinical studies are warranted to evaluate the applicability of this AMP for local treatment of infections in man.

Antimicrobial peptides from marine invertebrates: challenges and perspectives in marine antimicrobial peptide discovery.

The emergence of pathogenic bacteria resistance to conventional antibiotics calls for an increased focus on the purification and characterization of antimicrobials with new mechanisms of actions. Antimicrobial peptides are promising candidates, because their initial interaction with microbes is through binding to lipids. The interference with such a fundamental cell structure is assumed to hamper resistance development. In the present review we discuss antimicrobial peptides isolated from marine invertebrates, emphasizing the isolation and activity of these natural antibiotics. The marine environment is relatively poorly explored in terms of potential pharmaceuticals, and it contains a tremendous species diversity which evolved in close proximity to microorganisms. As invertebrates rely purely on innate immunity, including antimicrobial peptides, to combat infectious agents, it is believed that immune effectors from these animals are efficient and rapid inhibitors of microbial growth.

Powerful workhorses for antimicrobial peptide expression and characterization.

Discovery of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) is to a large extent based on screening of fractions of natural samples in bacterial growth inhibition assays. However, the use of bacteria is not limited to screening for antimicrobial substances. In later steps, bioengineered "bugs" can be applied to both production and characterization of AMPs. Here we describe the idea to use genetically modified Escherichia coli strains for both these purposes. This approach allowed us to investigate SpStrongylocins 1 and 2 from the purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus only based on sequence information from a cDNA library and without previous direct isolation or chemical synthesis of these peptides. The recombinant peptides are proved active against all bacterial strains tested. An assay based on a recombinant E. coli sensor strain expressing insect luciferase, revealed that SpStrongylocins are not interfering with membrane integrity and are therefore likely to have intracellular targets.

Two recombinant peptides, SpStrongylocins 1 and 2, from Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, show antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

The cysteine-rich strongylocins were the first antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) discovered from the sea urchin species, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Homologous putative proteins (called SpStrongylocin) were found in the sister species, S. purpuratus. To demonstrate that they exhibit the same antibacterial activity as strongylocins, cDNAs encoding the 'mature' peptides (SpStrongylocins 1 and 2) were cloned into a direct expression system fusing a protease cleavage site and two purification tags to the recombinant peptide. Both recombinant fusion peptides were expressed in a soluble form in an Escherichia coli strain tolerant to toxic proteins. Enterokinase was used to remove the fusion tags and purified recombinant SpStrongylocins 1 and 2 showed antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The results of membrane integrity assays against cytoplasmic membranes of E. coli suggest that both recombinant SpStrongylocins 1 and 2 conduct their antibacterial activity by intracellular killing mechanisms because no increase in membrane permeability was detected.

Characterization of Bacillus subtilis mutants with carbon source-independent glutamate biosynthesis.

Bacillus subtilis synthesizes glutamate from 2-oxoglutarate and glutamine using the glutamate synthase, encoded by the gltAB operon. Glutamate degradation involves the catabolic glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) RocG. Expression of both gltAB and rocG is controlled by the carbon and nitrogen sources. In the absence of glucose or other well-metabolizable carbon sources, B. subtilis is unable to grow unless provided with external glutamate. In this work, we isolated mutations that suppressed this growth defect of B. subtilis on minimal media (sgd mutants). All mutations enabled the cells to express the gltAB operon even in the absence of glucose. The mutations were all identified in the rocG gene suggesting that the catabolic GDH is essential for controlling gltAB expression in response to the availability of sugars.

Regulation of citB expression in Bacillus subtilis: integration of multiple metabolic signals in the citrate pool and by the general nitrogen regulatory system.

The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is one of the major routes of carbon catabolism in Bacillus subtilis. The syntheses of the enzymes performing the initial reactions of the cycle, citrate synthase, and aconitase, are synergistically repressed by rapidly metabolizable carbon sources and glutamine. This regulation involves the general transcription factor CcpA and the specific repressor CcpC. In this study, we analyzed the expression and intracellular localization of CcpC. The synthesis of citrate, the effector of CcpC, requires acetyl-CoA. This metabolite is located at a branching point in metabolism. It can be converted to acetate in overflow metabolism or to citrate. Manipulations of the fate of acetyl-CoA revealed that efficient citrate synthesis is required for the expression of the citB gene encoding aconitase and that control of the two pathways utilizing acetyl-CoA converges in the control of citrate synthesis for the induction of the TCA cycle. The citrate pool seems also to be controlled by arginine catabolism. The presence of arginine results in a severe CcpC-dependent repression of citB. In addition to regulators involved in sensing the carbon status of the cell, the pleiotropic nitrogen-related transcription factor, TnrA, activates citB transcription in the absence of glutamine.