Primary palliative care in the ICU.

ABSTRACT: Despite the best efforts of modern health care and critical care providers, many patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) will still die each year. The need for palliative care services in the ICU is common. Although specialty palliative care services provide excellent care and are a tremendous resource, every critical care provider should be able to provide the basics of palliative care themselves through the model of primary palliative care. Although it may be uncomfortable for the critical care provider at first, providing palliative care to our ICU patients can be a very rewarding experience. In this article, I discuss best practices for handling difficult conversations with patients and their families, helping patients and families make difficult decisions regarding the goals of care, and managing symptoms at the end of life.

A Modified Delphi Consensus Approach to Define Entrustable Professional Activities for Neurocritical Care Advanced Practice Providers.

OBJECTIVES: To define consensus entrustable professional activities (EPAs) for neurocritical care (NCC) advanced practice providers (APPs), establish validity evidence for the EPAs, and evaluate factors that inform entrustment expectations of NCC APP supervisors. DESIGN: A three-round modified Delphi consensus process followed by application of the EQual rubric and assessment of generalizability by clinicians not affiliated with academic medical centers. SETTING: Electronic surveys. SUBJECTS: NCC APPs (n = 18) and physicians (n = 12) in the United States with experience in education scholarship or APP program leadership. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The steering committee generated an initial list of 61 possible EPAs. The panel proposed 30 additional EPAs. A total of 47 unique nested EPAs were retained by consensus opinion. The steering committee defined six core EPAs addressing medical knowledge, procedural competencies, and communication proficiency which encompassed the nested EPAs. All core EPAs were retained and subsequently met the previously described cut score for quality and structure using the EQual rubric. Most clinicians who were not affiliated with academic medical centers rated each of the six core EPAs as very important or mandatory. Entrustment expectations did not vary by prespecified groups. CONCLUSIONS: Expert consensus was used to create EPAs for NCC APPs that reached a predefined quality standard and were important to most clinicians in different practice settings. We did not identify variables that significantly predicted entrustment expectations. These EPAs may aid in curricular design for an EPA-based assessment of new NCC APPs and may inform the development of EPAs for APPs in other critical care subspecialties.

Major Publications in the Critical Care Pharmacotherapy Literature: 2022.

OBJECTIVES: A number of trials related to critical care pharmacotherapy were published in 2022. We aimed to summarize the most influential publications related to the pharmacotherapeutic care of critically ill patients in 2022. DATA SOURCES: PubMed/Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online and the Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology Pharmacotherapy Literature Update. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized controlled trials, prospective studies, or systematic review/meta-analyses of adult critically ill patients assessing a pharmacotherapeutic intervention and reporting clinical endpoints published between January 1, 2022, and December 31, 2022, were included in this article. DATA EXTRACTION: Articles from a systematic search and the Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology Pharmacotherapy Literature Update were included and stratified into clinical domains based upon consistent themes. Consensus was obtained on the most influential publication within each clinical domain utilizing an a priori defined three-round modified Delphi process with the following considerations: 1) overall contribution to scientific knowledge and 2) novelty to the literature. DATA SYNTHESIS: The systematic search and Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology Pharmacotherapy Literature Update yielded a total of 704 articles, of which 660 were excluded. The remaining 44 articles were stratified into the following clinical domains: emergency/neurology, cardiovascular, gastroenterology/fluids/nutrition, hematology, infectious diseases/immunomodulation, and endocrine/metabolic. The final article selected from each clinical domain was summarized following a three-round modified Delphi process and included three randomized controlled trials and three systematic review/meta-analyses. Article topics summarized included dexmedetomidine versus other sedatives during mechanical ventilation, beta-blocker treatment in the critically ill, restriction of IV fluids in septic shock, venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in critically ill adults, duration of antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia, and low-dose methylprednisolone treatment in severe community-acquired pneumonia. CONCLUSIONS: This concise review provides a perspective on articles published in 2022 that are relevant to the pharmacotherapeutic care of critically ill patients and their potential impact on clinical practice.

Society of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Practice Guidelines for Rapid Sequence Intubation in the Critically Ill Adult Patient.

RATIONALE: Controversies and practice variations exist related to the pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic management of the airway during rapid sequence intubation (RSI). OBJECTIVES: To develop evidence-based recommendations on pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic topics related to RSI. DESIGN: A guideline panel of 20 Society of Critical Care Medicine members with experience with RSI and emergency airway management met virtually at least monthly from the panel's inception in 2018 through 2020 and face-to-face at the 2020 Critical Care Congress. The guideline panel included pharmacists, physicians, a nurse practitioner, and a respiratory therapist with experience in emergency medicine, critical care medicine, anesthesiology, and prehospital medicine; consultation with a methodologist and librarian was available. A formal conflict of interest policy was followed and enforced throughout the guidelines-development process. METHODS: Panelists created Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) questions and voted to select the most clinically relevant questions for inclusion in the guideline. Each question was assigned to a pair of panelists, who refined the PICO wording and reviewed the best available evidence using predetermined search terms. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations (GRADE) framework was used throughout and recommendations of "strong" or "conditional" were made for each PICO question based on quality of evidence and panel consensus. Recommendations were provided when evidence was actionable; suggestions, when evidence was equivocal; and best practice statements, when the benefits of the intervention outweighed the risks, but direct evidence to support the intervention did not exist. RESULTS: From the original 35 proposed PICO questions, 10 were selected. The RSI guideline panel issued one recommendation (strong, low-quality evidence), seven suggestions (all conditional recommendations with moderate-, low-, or very low-quality evidence), and two best practice statements. The panel made two suggestions for a single PICO question and did not make any suggestions for one PICO question due to lack of evidence. CONCLUSIONS: Using GRADE principles, the interdisciplinary panel found substantial agreement with respect to the evidence supporting recommendations for RSI. The panel also identified literature gaps that might be addressed by future research.

Point-of-Care Ultrasonography in the Critical Care Setting: Abdominal POCUS.

Point-of-care ultrasonography is becoming standard practice for diagnosis and management of patients in the critical care setting. When using point-of-care ultrasonography for evaluation of the abdomen, most providers will immediately think of the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma examination. However, there are a number of important abdominal applications for the nontrauma patient, including evaluation of the function of abdominal organs, differentiation of shock states, and identification of sources of sepsis. This article covers basic approaches to an abdominal point-of-care ultrasonography examination of the biliary tract, liver, kidneys, bladder, and appendix, as well as identification and management of intra-abdominal free fluid.

Management of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is an often devastating intracranial hemorrhage resulting from acute bleeding into the subarachnoid space. Although its overall incidence is less than that of acute ischemic stroke, sub-arachnoid hemorrhage carries increased risks of both mortality and disability. Although many patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage are transferred to specialty centers, they might initially present to small community-based hospitals. Treatment for these patients is complex, requiring specialized care and knowledge, and various complications can occur quickly and without warning. Therefore, all members of the health care team who care for these patients must understand proper management. Nurses in the intensive care unit play an important role in influencing outcomes, as they are best positioned to recognize neurological decline and provide rapid intervention. This article discusses the anatomy relevant to, and the epidemiology and pathophysiology of, subarachnoid hemorrhage and provides an overview of current evidence and clinical guidelines for managing this brain injury.

Reversing Direct Oral Anticoagulants in Acute Intracranial Hemorrhage.

Intracerebral hemorrhage is a major source of morbidity and mortality, accounting for 10% of all strokes. Oral anticoagulation therapy, while necessary to prevent thromboembolic complications, increases the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage and can potentially worsen bleeding in cases of acute hemorrhage. Before the introduction of direct oral anticoagulant agents in 2010, warfarin was the only option for oral anticoagulation. These new agents have an improved safety profile compared with warfarin but require different reversal strategies. Anticoagulation reversal in the setting of acute intracerebral hemorrhage is an evolving field. This article covers the most common direct oral anticoagulant medications, various available anticoagulant reversal strategies, and the latest guidelines for anticoagulation reversal in patients with acute intracranial hemorrhage.

Acute Ischemic Stroke.

Acute ischemic stroke is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in the United States and worldwide. Despite the development of specialized stroke centers, mortality and morbidity as a result of acute ischemic strokes can and do happen anywhere. These strokes are emergency situations requiring immediate intervention. This article covers the fundamentals of care involved in treating patients with acute ischemic stroke, including essentials for the initial evaluation, basic neuroimaging, reperfusion therapies, critical care management, and palliative care, as well as current controversies. National guidelines and current research are presented, along with recommendations for implementation.

Safety of Nurse-Led Ambulation for Patients on Venovenous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation.

PURPOSE: Venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VV ECMO) is an effective therapy in patients with acute lung injury and end-stage lung disease. Although immobility increases the risk of complications, ambulation of patients on VV ECMO is not the standard of care in many institutions. Staff concerns for patient safety remain a barrier to ambulation. In this case series, we present our experience utilizing a nurse-driven ambulatory VV ECMO process to safely rehabilitate patients. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed all VV ECMO cases at our institution between January 1, 2011, and November 1, 2013. Inclusion criteria for this study required patients to be cannulated in the right internal jugular vein and ambulated while on VV ECMO. RESULTS: During the period from January 1, 2011, to November 1, 2013, 18 patients (mean age 49 ± 15 years, 12 male) were ambulated while on ECMO. Eight received a transplant and survived to discharge. Of the remaining patients, 4 were successfully weaned from VV ECMO and 6 died following decisions by the family to withdraw care. The mean duration of VV ECMO support was 18 ± 16 days with the maximum duration being 61 days. All patients received physical therapy, range of motion at the bedside, and ambulated in the hospital. There were no patient falls, decannulations, or any other complications related to ambulation. CONCLUSION: The adoption of a nurse-driven program to ambulate patients on VV ECMO is safe and may reduce other complications associated with immobility.

Evaluation of a High-Fidelity Simulation Training Program for New Cardiothoracic Intensive Care Unit Nurses.

The objective of this article is to evaluate the effect of a high-fidelity simulation training program on knowledge and confidence as part of a nursing internship in the cardiothoracic intensive care unit. Ten nurse interns each completed a simulation scenario involving common postoperative complications followed by a group debriefing session. Knowledge and confidence were assessed using a multiple-choice test and modified self-efficacy scale, respectively. Both were administered precourse and postcourse and again 2 weeks later. The simulation effectiveness tool, a 0-2 scale with higher scores indicating higher degree of perceived effectiveness, was used to evaluate participants׳ perceptions of the program. Paired t-tests compared precourse and postcourse scores as well as postcourse and follow-up scores for both knowledge and confidence. Spearman rho compared subjective with objective assessment of learning and improvement in learning with improvement in confidence. Mean knowledge scores improved from 48.18% (standard deviation [SD] = 14.7) to 60.9% (SD = 22.6; P < 0.05) and confidence scores improved from 20.8 (SD = 5.17) to 25.9 (SD = 3.3; P < 0.05), both with insignificant changes 2 weeks later. The simulation effectiveness tool mean score was 1.64 (SD = 0.56). There was no correlation between the objective and subjective learning assessments or between the improvement in learning and improvement in confidence. The inclusion of a high-fidelity simulation course showed improvement in both learning and confidence among the new graduate nurses; however, objective assessment of learning is needed. It is also important to note that an improvement in confidence may not indicate an improvement in actual ability.

The effect of high-fidelity simulation on knowledge and confidence in critical care training: An integrative review.

Patient outcomes in critical care have long been linked to provider experience, but with older providers retiring, it is becoming difficult to maintain a high-level of experience among the ICU staff. Innovative training methods that improve providers' knowledge and confidence may be able to make up for deficiencies in clinical experience. High-fidelity simulation training mimics clinical experience and has been extensively studied in the training of procedural skills, but what is the effect of this type of training on knowledge and confidence? To answer this question, we conducted a review of the literature for studies examining the effect of simulation training on knowledge and confidence among critical care providers. Seventeen papers were identified that met the inclusion criteria and a systematic approach was used to review the papers and synthesize the data. All 17 studies demonstrated an improvement in knowledge and while only 13 of the included studies examined the effect on provider confidence, all found an improvement. We conclude that high-fidelity simulation is a useful tool for improving knowledge and confidence among critical care providers and merits consideration for inclusion in critical care training programs.

Harlequin syndrome as a complication of epidural anesthesia.

Harlequin syndrome is a rare neurological condition that results in unilateral facial flushing and sweating. Although the syndrome is generally a benign condition with complete resolution if appropriate treatment is initiated, unilateral facial flushing can be a sign of several serious conditions and should be thoroughly investigated. Sudden onset of facial flushing related to harlequin syndrome developed in a patient who had bilateral lung transplant with postoperative epidural anesthesia for pain control. Differential diagnosis includes neurovascular disease (acute stroke), malignant neoplasm of brain or lung, Horner syndrome, idiopathic hyperhidrosis, and Frey syndrome. Harlequin syndrome is often easily treated by discontinuing the anesthetic or adjusting placement of the epidural catheter.

Renal issues in older adults in critical care.

Renal issues are among the most commonly encountered complications in the intensive care unit, increasing mortality, morbidity, and health care costs. Older adult patients face an increased risk because of several factors, including the normal effects of aging and a higher rate of comorbid conditions that may affect kidney function. This article describes the classification of renal dysfunction, the effects of aging on kidney function, as well as additional risk factors, management strategies, and outcomes in the older adult population.