Hydroxyurea reduces infections in children with sickle cell anemia in Uganda.

ABSTRACT: After starting hydroxyurea treatment, Ugandan children with sickle cell anemia had 60% fewer severe or invasive infections, including malaria, bacteremia, respiratory tract infections, and gastroenteritis, than before starting hydroxyurea treatment (incidence rate ratio, 0.40 [95% confidence interval, 0.29-0.54]; P < .001).

sTREM-1: A Biomarker of Mortality in Severe Malaria Impacted by Acute Kidney Injury.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is an important cause of mortality in African children. Identification of biomarkers to identify children at risk of mortality has the potential to improve outcomes. METHODS: We evaluated 11 biomarkers of host response in 592 children with severe malaria. The primary outcome was biomarker performance for predicting mortality. Biomarkers were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis comparing the area under the ROC curve (AUROC). RESULTS: Mortality was 7.3% among children in the study with 72% of deaths occurring within 24 hours of admission. Among the candidate biomarkers, soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (sTREM-1) had the highest AUROC (0.78 [95% confidence interval, .70-.86]), outperforming several other biomarkers including C-reactive protein and procalcitonin. sTREM-1 was the top-performing biomarker across prespecified subgroups (malaria definition, site, sex, nutritional status, age). Using established cutoffs, we evaluated mortality across sTREM-1 risk zones. Among children with acute kidney injury, 39.9% of children with a critical-risk sTREM-1 result had an indication for dialysis. When evaluated relative to a disease severity score, sTREM-1 improved mortality prediction (difference in AUROC, P = .016). CONCLUSIONS: sTREM-1 is a promising biomarker to guide rational allocation of clinical resources and should be integrated into clinical decision support algorithms, particularly when acute kidney injury is suspected.

Apolipoprotein-E4: risk of severe malaria and mortality and cognitive impairment in pediatric cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: The relationship of apolipoprotein-E4 (APOE4) to mortality and cognition after severe malaria in children is unknown. METHODS: APOE genotyping was performed in children with cerebral malaria (CM, n = 261), severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 224) and community children (CC, n = 213). Cognition was assessed over 2-year follow-up. RESULTS: A greater proportion of children with CM or SMA than CC had APOE4 (n = 162, 31.0%; n = 142, 31.7%; n = 103, 24.2%, respectively, p = 0.02), but no difference was seen in APOE3 (n = 310, 59.4%; n = 267, 59.6%; n = 282, 66.2%, respectively, p = 0.06), or APOE2 (n = 50, 9.6%; n = 39, 8.7%; and n = 41, 9.6%, respectively, p = 0.87). APOE4 was associated with increased mortality in CM (odds ratio, 2.28; 95% CI, 1.01, 5.11). However, APOE4 was associated with better long-term cognition (ß, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.04, 1.07, p = 0.04) and attention (ß 0.78; 95% CI, 0.26, 1.30, p = 0.004) in children with CM < 5 years old, but worse attention (ß, -0.90; 95% CI, -1.69, -0.10, p = 0.03) in children with CM ≥ 5 years old. Among children with CM, risk of post-discharge malaria was increased with APOE4 and decreased with APOE3. CONCLUSIONS: APOE4 is associated with higher risk of CM or SMA and mortality in children with CM, but better long-term cognition in CM survivors <5 years of age.

Renin as a Biomarker of Acute Kidney Injury and Mortality in Children With Severe Malaria or Sickle Cell Disease.

BACKGROUND: Globally, a very high percentage of acute kidney injury (AKI) occurs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where late recognition contributes to increased mortality. There are challenges with using existing biomarkers of AKI in LMICs. Emerging evidence suggests renin may serve as a biomarker of kidney injury that can overcome limitations in creatinine-based diagnostics. METHODS: Two study populations in Uganda were assessed. Cohort #1 was a two-site, prospective cohort study enrolling 600 children with severe malaria (SM). Cohort #2 was a prospective cohort study enrolling 185 children with sickle cell disease (SCD) hospitalized with a vaso-occlusive crisis. Plasma or serum renin concentrations were measured in both cohorts of children at the time of hospital admission using Luminex® (Luminex Corporation, Austin, Texas, United States) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. We assessed the ability of renin to discriminate between children with or without AKI and between children who survived and children who died using receiver operating characteristic curves. RESULTS: In both cohorts, renin concentrations were strongly associated with AKI and mortality. Renin was able to discriminate between children with or without AKI with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.70 (95%CI, 0.65-0.74) in children with SM and 0.72 (95%CI, 0.6co3-0.81) in children with SCD. Renin was able to discriminate between children who survived and children who died with an AUC of 0.73 (95%CI, 0.63-0.83) in children with SM and 0.94 (95%CI, 0.89-0.99) in children with SCD. In Cohort #2, we compared renin against urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as the leading biomarker of AKI, and it had comparable performance in discriminating AKI and predicting mortality. CONCLUSIONS: In two independent populations of children at risk of AKI with key differences in the etiology of kidney injury, renin was strongly associated with AKI and mortality and had moderate to good diagnostic performance to predict mortality.

Admission Clinical and EEG Features Associated With Mortality and Long-term Neurologic and Cognitive Outcomes in Pediatric Cerebral Malaria.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: For children with cerebral malaria, mortality is high, and in survivors, long-term neurologic and cognitive dysfunctions are common. While specific clinical factors are associated with death or long-term neurocognitive morbidity in cerebral malaria, the association of EEG features with these outcomes, particularly neurocognitive outcomes, is less well characterized. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study of 149 children age 6 months to 12 years who survived cerebral malaria in Kampala, Uganda, we evaluated whether depth of coma, number of clinical seizures, or EEG features during hospitalization were associated with mortality during hospitalization, short-term and long-term neurologic deficits, or long-term cognitive outcomes (overall cognition, attention, memory) over the 2-year follow-up. RESULTS: Higher Blantyre or Glasgow Coma Scores (BCS and GCS, respectively), higher background voltage, and presence of normal reactivity on EEG were each associated with lower mortality. Among clinical and EEG features, the presence of >4 seizures on admission had the best combination of negative and positive predictive values for neurologic deficits in follow-up. In multivariable modeling of cognitive outcomes, the number of seizures and specific EEG features showed independent association with better outcomes. In children younger than 5 years throughout the study, seizure number and presence of vertex sharp waves were independently associated with better posthospitalization cognitive performance, faster dominant frequency with better attention, and higher average background voltage and faster dominant background frequency with better associative memory. In children younger than 5 years at CM episode but 5 years or older at cognitive testing, seizure number, background dominant frequency, and the presence of vertex sharp waves were each associated with changes in cognition, seizure number and variability with attention, and seizure number with working memory. DISCUSSION: In children with cerebral malaria, seizure number is strongly associated with the risk of long-term neurologic deficits, while seizure number and specific EEG features (average background voltage, dominant rhythm frequency, presence of vertex sharp waves, presence of variability) are independently associated with cognitive outcomes. Future studies should evaluate the predictive value of these findings.

Severe Malaria and Academic Achievement.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) and severe malarial anemia (SMA) are associated with neurocognitive impairment in childhood but their effects on long-term academic achievement are not known. METHODS: Ugandan children 5 to 12 years old who participated in a previous study evaluating cognitive outcomes after CM (n = 73) or SMA (n = 56), along with community children (CC, n = 100) from the same household or neighborhood, were on average enrolled 67.1 months (range, 19-101 months) after the severe malaria episode or previous study enrollment. Academic achievement in word reading, sentence comprehension, spelling, and math computation was evaluated using the Wide Range Achievement Test, Fourth Edition. Age-adjusted z-scores for academic achievement outcomes were calculated from CC scores. RESULTS: After adjustment for age and time from enrollment, reading scores were lower (mean difference from CC [95% confidence interval]) in children with CM (-0.15 [-0.27 to -0.03], P = .02) or SMA (-0.15 [-0.28 to -0.02], P = .02) than CC. Postdischarge malaria episodes were associated with worse spelling and reading scores in CM and worse spelling scores only in SMA. Pathway analysis showed that incidence of postdischarge uncomplicated malaria contributed significantly to the association of CM or SMA with poorer reading scores. CONCLUSION: Children with CM or SMA have poorer long-term reading skills. Postdischarge malaria episodes contribute significantly to this association. Postdischarge malaria chemoprevention should be assessed as an intervention to improve long-term academic achievement in children with severe malaria.

Zinc for infection prevention in children with sickle cell anemia: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial.

Data from small clinical trials in the United States and India suggest zinc supplementation reduces infection in adolescents and adults with sickle cell anemia (SCA), but no studies of zinc supplementation for infection prevention have been conducted in children with SCA living in Africa. We conducted a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial to assess zinc supplementation for prevention of severe or invasive infections in Ugandan children 1.00-4.99 years with SCA. Of 252 enrolled participants, 124 were assigned zinc (10 mg) and 126 assigned placebo once daily for 12 months. The primary outcome was incidence of protocol-defined severe or invasive infections. Infection incidence did not differ between treatment arms (282 vs. 270 severe or invasive infections per 100 person-years, respectively, incidence rate ratio of 1.04 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.81, 1.32, p=0.78]), adjusting for hydroxyurea treatment. There was also no difference between treatment arms in incidence of serious adverse events or SCA-related events. Children receiving zinc had increased serum levels after 12-months, but at study exit, 41% remained zinc deficient (<65 µg/dL). In post-hoc analysis, occurrence of stroke or death was lower in the zinc treatment arm (adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI), 0.22 (0.05, 1.00); p=0.05). Daily 10 mg zinc supplementation for 12 months did not prevent severe or invasive infections in Ugandan children with SCA, but many supplemented children remained zinc deficient. Optimal zinc dosing and the role of zinc in preventing stroke or death in SCA warrant further investigation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03528434.

Severity of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in patients with and without mucocutaneous findings.

BACKGROUND: There are few studies comparing severity of MIS-C disease with mucocutaneous symptoms, age, race, and ethnicity. OBJECTIVE: To describe the mucocutaneous symptoms present on admission and evaluate whether these symptoms are correlated with a more severe MIS-C disease course. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of hospitalized patients with suspected MIS-C between May 13, 2020 to April 21, 2021. RESULTS: Of the 66 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 84.8% (56/66) exhibited mucocutaneous findings. The most common mucocutaneous symptoms were rash, conjunctivitis, cracked lips, and sore throat. Children with mucocutaneous symptoms were younger (median 9.8 years) compared to those without (11.4 years), p = .39. The groups had similar proportions of pediatric intensive care unit admission, abnormal cardiology studies, and necessity of pressors. The presence of mucocutaneous findings on admission was associated with a lower troponin level on admission (median 0.08 ng/ml vs. 0.52, p = .003). Black children had higher odds of severe MIS-C compared to White children (odds ratio [95% CI]: 3.30 [1.02, 10.72], p = .047). Children ≥5 years of age had greater odds of severe MIS-C compared to children <5 years of age (odds ratio [95% CI]: 5.43 [1.39, 21.23], p = .02). LIMITATIONS: The sample size was relatively small, there was no dermatologist present on admission, initial diagnostic testing and management varied if patients presented at outside hospitals, and the CDC case definition for MIS-C was highly sensitive. CONCLUSION: The presence of mucocutaneous symptoms negatively correlated with troponin levels, but there was no significant association between these symptoms and other markers of cardiac involvement (echocardiogram, ejection fraction, electrocardiogram).

Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations in Children With Severe Malaria Are Associated With Mortality and Worse Long-term Kidney and Cognitive Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Global changes in amino acid levels have been described in severe malaria (SM), but the relationship between amino acids and long-term outcomes in SM has not been evaluated. METHODS: We measured enrollment plasma concentrations of 20 amino acids using high-performance liquid chromatography in 500 Ugandan children aged 18 months to 12 years, including 122 community children and 378 children with SM. The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria were used to define acute kidney injury (AKI) at enrollment and chronic kidney disease (CKD) at 1-year follow-up. Cognition was assessed over 2 years of follow-up. RESULTS: Compared to laboratory-defined, age-specific reference ranges, there were deficiencies in sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine, cysteine) in both community children and children with SM. Among children with SM, global changes in amino acid concentrations were observed in the context of metabolic complications including acidosis and AKI. Increases in threonine, leucine, and valine were associated with in-hospital mortality, while increases in methionine, tyrosine, lysine, and phenylalanine were associated with postdischarge mortality and CKD. Increases in glycine and asparagine were associated with worse attention in children <5 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Among children with SM, unique amino acid profiles are associated with mortality, CKD, and worse attention.

Intestinal Injury Biomarkers Predict Mortality in Pediatric Severe Malaria.

Severe malaria (SM) increases the risk of invasive bacterial infection, and there is evidence to suggest increased gastrointestinal permeability. Studies have shown sequestration of infected erythrocytes in intestinal microvasculature, and in vivo studies of rectal mucosa have demonstrated disruption of microvascular blood flow. However, the extent of intestinal injury in pediatric malaria is not well characterized. In this study, two serum biomarkers of intestinal injury, trefoil factor 3 (TFF3) and intestinal fatty acid binding protein (I-FABP), were analyzed in 598 children with SM and 120 healthy community children (CC), 6 months to 4 years of age. Serum was collected at enrollment and 1 month for laboratory studies, and participants were monitored for 12 months. Intestinal injury biomarkers were significantly elevated in children with SM, with 18.1% having levels of TFF3 and/or I-FABP greater than the 99th percentile of CC levels. TFF3 levels continued to be elevated at 1 month, while I-FABP levels were comparable to CC levels. Both markers predicted in-hospital mortality {odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval [CI]), 4.4 (2.7, 7.3) and 2.3 (1.7, 3.1)} for a natural log increase in TFF3 and I-FABP, respectively. TFF3 was also associated with postdischarge mortality (OR, 2.43 [95% CI, 1.1, 4.8]). Intestinal injury was associated with acute kidney injury (AKI), acidosis (P < 0.001 for both), and angiopoietin 2, a maker of endothelial activation. In conclusion, intestinal injury is common in pediatric severe malaria and is associated with an increased mortality. It is strongly associated with AKI, acidosis, and endothelial activation. IMPORTANCE In children with severe malaria, intestinal injury is a common complication associated with increased mortality. Intestinal injury is associated with acute kidney injury, acidosis, and endothelial activation. Interventions promoting intestinal regeneration and repair represent novel approaches to improve outcomes.

Elevated Plasma Soluble ST2 Levels are Associated With Neuronal Injury and Neurocognitive Impairment in Children With Cerebral Malaria.

Background: Murine experimental cerebral malaria studies suggest both protective and deleterious central nervous system effects from alterations in the interleukin-33 (IL-33)/ST2 pathway. Methods: We assessed whether soluble ST2 (sST2) was associated with neuronal injury or cognitive impairment in a cohort of Ugandan children with cerebral malaria (CM, n=224) or severe malarial anemia (SMA, n=193). Results: Plasma concentrations of sST2 were higher in children with CM than in children with SMA or in asymptomatic community children. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sST2 levels were elevated in children with CM compared with North American children. Elevated plasma and CSF ST2 levels in children with CM correlated with increased endothelial activation and increased plasma and CSF levels of tau, a marker of neuronal injury. In children with CM who were ≥5 years of age at the time of their malaria episode, but not in children <5 years of age, elevated risk factor-adjusted plasma levels of sST2 were associated with worse scores for overall cognitive ability and attention over a 2-year follow-up. Conclusions: The study findings suggest that sST2 may contribute to neuronal injury and long-term neurocognitive impairment in older children with CM.

Impact of Oxidative Stress on Risk of Death and Readmission in African Children With Severe Malaria: A Prospective Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that oxidative stress in Ugandan children with severe malaria is associated with mortality. METHODS: We evaluated biomarkers of oxidative stress in children with cerebral malaria (CM, n = 77) or severe malarial anemia (SMA, n = 79), who were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial of immediate vs delayed iron therapy, compared with community children (CC, n = 83). Associations between admission biomarkers and risk of death during hospitalization or risk of readmission within 6 months were analyzed. RESULTS: Nine children with CM and none with SMA died during hospitalization. Children with CM or SMA had higher levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) (P < .001) and lower superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity than CC (P < .02). Children with CM had a higher risk of death with increasing HO-1 concentration (odds ratio [OR], 6.07 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.17-31.31]; P = .03) but a lower risk of death with increasing SOD activity (OR, 0.02 [95% CI, .001-.70]; P = .03). There were no associations between oxidative stress biomarkers on admission and risk of readmission within 6 months of enrollment. CONCLUSIONS: Children with CM or SMA develop oxidative stress in response to severe malaria. Oxidative stress is associated with higher mortality in children with CM but not with SMA. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT01093989.

Level and Duration of IgG and Neutralizing Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in Children with Symptomatic or Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

There are conflicting data about level and duration of Abs to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in children after symptomatic or asymptomatic infection. In this human population, we enrolled adults and children in a prospective 6-mo study in the following categories: 1) symptomatic, SARS-CoV-2 PCR+ (SP+; children, n = 8; adults, n = 16), 2) symptomatic, PCR-, or untested (children, n = 27), 3) asymptomatic exposed (children, n = 13), and 4) asymptomatic, no known exposure (children, n = 19). Neutralizing Abs (nAbs) and IgG Abs to SARS-CoV-2 Ags and spike protein variants were measured by multiplex serological assay. All SP+ children developed nAb, whereas 81% of SP+ adults developed nAb. Decline in the presence of nAb over 6 mo was not significant in symptomatic children (100 to 87.5%; p = 0.32) in contrast to adults (81.3 to 50.0%; p = 0.03). Among children with nAb (n = 22), nAb titers and change in titers over 6 mo were similar in symptomatic and asymptomatic children. In children and adults, nAb levels postinfection were 10-fold lower than those reported after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination. Levels of IgG Abs in children to SARS-CoV-2 Ags and spike protein variants were similar to those in adults. IgG levels to primary Ags decreased over time in children and adults, but levels to three spike variants decreased only in children. Children with asymptomatic or symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection develop nAbs that remain present longer than in adults but wane in titer over time and broad IgG Abs that also wane in level over time. However, nAb levels were lower postinfection than those reported after immunization.

Association of Plasma Tau With Mortality and Long-term Neurocognitive Impairment in Survivors of Pediatric Cerebral Malaria and Severe Malarial Anemia.

Importance: Cerebral malaria (CM) and severe malarial anemia (SMA) are associated with persistent neurocognitive impairment (NCI) among children in Africa. Identifying blood biomarkers of acute brain injury that are associated with future NCI could allow early interventions to prevent or reduce NCI in survivors of severe malaria. Objective: To investigate whether acutely elevated tau levels are associated with future NCI in children after CM or SMA. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study was conducted at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala, Uganda, from March 2008 to October 2015. Children aged 1.5 to 12 years with CM (n = 182) or SMA (n = 162) as well as community children (CC; n = 123) were enrolled in the study. Data analysis was conducted from January 2020 to May 2021. Exposure: CM or SMA. Main Outcomes and Measures: Enrollment plasma tau levels were measured using single-molecule array detection technology. Overall cognition (primary) and attention and memory (secondary) z scores were measured at 1 week and 6, 12, and 24 months after discharge using tools validated in Ugandan children younger than 5 years or 5 years and older. Results: A total of 467 children were enrolled. In the CM group, 75 (41%) were girls, and the mean (SD) age was 4.02 (1.92) years. In the SMA group, 59 (36%) were girls, and the mean (SD) age was 3.45 (1.60) years. In the CC group, 65 (53%) were girls, and the mean (SD) age was 3.94 (1.92) years. Elevated plasma tau levels (>95th percentile in CC group; >6.43 pg/mL) were observed in 100 children (55%) with CM and 69 children (43%) with SMA (P < .001). In children with CM who were younger than 5 years, elevated plasma tau levels were associated with increased mortality (odds ratio [OR], 3.06; 95% CI, 1.01-9.26; P = .048). In children with CM who were younger than 5 years at both CM episode and follow-up neurocognitive testing, plasma tau levels (log10 transformed) were associated with worse overall cognition scores over 24-month follow-up (ß = -0.80; 95% CI, -1.32 to -0.27; P = .003). In children with CM who were younger than 5 years at CM episode and 5 years or older at follow-up neurocognitive testing, plasma tau was associated with worse scores in attention (ß = -1.08; 95% CI, -1.79 to -0.38; P = .003) and working memory (ß = -1.39; 95% CI, -2.18 to -0.60; P = .001). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, plasma tau, a marker of injury to neuronal axons, was elevated in children with CM or SMA and was associated with mortality and persistent NCI in children with CM younger than 5 years.

The Impact of Undernutrition on Cognition in Children with Severe Malaria and Community Children: A Prospective 2-Year Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: The frequency of recovery from undernutrition after an episode of severe malaria, and the relationship between undernutrition during severe malaria and clinical and cognitive outcomes are not well characterized. METHODS: We evaluated undernutrition and cognition in children in Kampala, Uganda 18 months to 5 years of age with cerebral malaria (CM), severe malarial anemia (SMA) or community children (CC). The Mullen Scales of Early Learning was used to measure cognition. Undernutrition, defined as 2 SDs below median for weight-for-age (underweight), height-for-age (stunting) or weight-for-height (wasting), was compared with mortality, hospital readmission and cognition over 24-month follow-up. RESULTS: At enrollment, wasting was more common in CM (16.7%) or SMA (15.9%) than CC (4.7%) (both p < 0.0001), and being underweight was more common in SMA (27.0%) than CC (12.8%; p = 0.001), while prevalence of stunting was similar in all three groups. By 6-month follow-up, prevalence of wasting or being underweight did not differ significantly between children with severe malaria and CC. Undernutrition at enrollment was not associated with mortality or hospital readmission, but children who were underweight or stunted at baseline had lower cognitive z-scores than those who were not {underweight, mean difference [95% confidence interval (CI)] -0.98 (-1.66, -0.31), -0.72 (-1.16, -0.27) and -0.61 (-1.08, -0.13); and stunted, -0.70 (-1.25, -0.15), -0.73 (-1.16, -0.31) and -0.61 (-0.96, -0.27), for CM, SMA and CC, respectively}. CONCLUSION: In children with severe malaria, wasting and being underweight return to population levels after treatment. However, being stunted or underweight at enrollment was associated with worse long-term cognition in both CC and children with severe malaria.

Decreased parasite burden and altered host response in children with sickle cell anemia and severe anemia with malaria.

Plasmodium falciparum malaria causes morbidity and mortality in African children with sickle cell anemia (SCA), but comparisons of host responses to P falciparum between children with SCA (homozygous sickle cell disease/hemoglobin SS [HbSS]) and normal hemoglobin genotype/hemoglobin AA (HbAA) are limited. We assessed parasite biomass and plasma markers of inflammation and endothelial activation in children with HbAA (n = 208) or HbSS (n = 22) who presented with severe anemia and P falciparum parasitemia to Mulago Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. Genotyping was performed at study completion. No child had known SCA at enrollment. Children with HbSS did not differ from children with HbAA in peripheral parasite density, but had significantly lower sequestered parasite biomass. Children with HbSS had greater leukocytosis but significantly lower concentrations of several plasma inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). In contrast, children with HbSS had threefold greater concentrations of angiopoietin-2 (Angpt-2), a marker of endothelial dysregulation associated with mortality in severe malaria. Lower TNF-α concentrations were associated with increased risk of postdischarge mortality or readmission, whereas higher Angpt-2 concentrations were associated with increased risk of recurrent clinical malaria. Children with SCA have decreased parasite sequestration and inflammation but increased endothelial dysregulation during severe anemia with P falciparum parasitemia, which may ameliorate acute infectious complications but predispose to harmful long-term sequelae.

Identifying Risk Factors That Distinguish Symptomatic Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection From Common Upper Respiratory Infections in Children.

Background Demographic and clinical risk factors for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in children presenting with respiratory viral symptoms are not well defined. An understanding of risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection can help prioritize testing. Methodology We evaluated potential demographic and clinical factors in children who had respiratory viral symptoms and were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory viral infections. Results Among the 263 symptomatic children tested for routine seasonal respiratory viruses by PCR, 18 (6.8%) tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Overall, 22.2% of SARS-CoV-2-infected children and 37.1% of SARS-CoV-2-uninfected children had infection with one or more non-SARS-CoV-2 pathogens (p = 0.31). Higher proportions of children with compared to without SARS-CoV-2 infection were male (77.8 vs. 51.8%, p = 0.05), Hispanic (44.4% vs. 9.8%, p < 0.001), or had the symptoms of fatigue (22.2% vs. 2.5%, p = 0.003) or anosmia/ageusia (11.1% vs. 0%, p = 0.004). History of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) and obesity were more common in children with versus without SARS-CoV-2 infection (11.1% vs. 1.2%, p = 0.04, and 11.1% vs. 0%, p = 0.004, respectively). In a multivariate analysis, Hispanic ethnicity, symptoms of fatigue or anosmia/ageusia, and presence of obesity (as noted on physical examination) or HIE were independently associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Numbers in each category were small, and these preliminary associations require confirmation in future studies. Conclusions In this area of the United States, infection with other viruses did not rule out infection with SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, children with respiratory viral symptoms who were of Hispanic ethnicity, had symptoms of weakness/fatigue, or had obesity or HIE were at an increased risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Future studies should assess if these factors are associated with risk in populations in other areas of the United States.

Economic determinants of breastfeeding in Haiti: The effects of poverty, food insecurity, and employment on exclusive breastfeeding in an urban population.

There is limited and inconsistent empirical evidence regarding the role of economic factors in breastfeeding practices, globally. Studies have found both negative and positive associations between low income and exclusive breastfeeding (EBF). Employment, which should improve household income, may reduce EBF due to separation of mother and infant. In the context of a randomized controlled study of lipid-based complementary feeding in an urban slum in Cap Haitien, Haiti, we examined the economic factors influencing breastfeeding practices using mixed methods. Findings demonstrate relationships between urban context, economic factors, and breastfeeding practices. Poverty, food insecurity, time constraints, and limited social support create challenges for EBF. Maternal employment is associated with lower rates of EBF and less frequent breastfeeding. Extreme food insecurity sometimes leads to increased exclusive breastfeeding among Haitian mothers, what we call "last resort EBF." In this case, women practice EBF because they have no alternative food source for the infant. Suggested policies and programs to address economic constraints and promote EBF in this population include maternal and child allowances, quality child care options, and small-scale household urban food production.