Transfer of functions based on equivalence class formation using musical stimuli.

Empirical evidence has supported that musical excerpts written in major and minor modes are responsible for evoking happiness and sadness, respectively. In this study, we evaluated whether the emotional content evoked by musical stimuli would transfer to abstract figures when they became members of the same equivalence class. Participants assigned to the experimental group were submitted to a training procedure to form equivalence classes comprising musical excerpts (A) and meaningless abstract figures (B, C, and D). Afterward, transfer of function was evaluated using a semantic differential. Participants in the control group showed positive semantic differential scores for major mode musical excerpts, negative scores for minor mode musical excerpts, and neutral scores for the B, C, and D stimuli. Participants in the experimental groups showed positive semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the major modes and negative semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the minor modes. These results indicate transfer of function of emotional content present in musical stimuli through equivalence class formation. These findings could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of using emotional stimuli in equivalence class formation experiments and in transfer of function itself.

Neuroscience contributes to the understanding of the neurobiology of temporomandibular disorders associated with stress and anxiety.

OBJECTIVE: This review proposes a neurobiological model for temporomandibular disorders (TMD) associated with stress and anxiety. METHODS: An electronic search was performed in the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. Articles published up to 2020 were selected. The search terms were the following: temporomandibular disorders, anxiety, stress, neurobiology of stress and anxiety, and orofacial pain. RESULTS: In total, there were 100 studies, which presented a total of 10 different analyses. The results were described, demonstrating the type of analysis that was performed on each item analyzed for a better understanding of the context. CONCLUSION: The conclusion is that the interactions between the masticatory system, temporomandibular joints (TMJs), and stomatognathic apparatus with "stress neuromatrix," "pain neuromatrix," "limbic system," and "neuroimmunoendocrine system" would produce the range of changes observed in neural connectivity and the diversity of symptoms presented in TMD.

Electrophysiological analysis of stimulus variables in equivalence relations.

Recently, electrophysiological measures have been used to evaluate the functional overlap between semantic relations and laboratory-defined equivalence relations with abstract stimuli. Several studies using semantic judgment procedures have shown that accompanying EEG-measured neural activity for stimulus pairs from equivalence classes is very similar to that of word pairs from participants' native language. However, those studies often included pronounceable elements (e.g., written nonsense syllables) as at least one member of the experimentally defined classes. The present study conducted EEG studies that contrasted classes with and without such elements. Two groups of undergraduate students completed a matching-to-sample procedure to establish 3 4-member equivalence classes. For Group 1, samples and comparisons were pronounceable pseudowords and abstract figures. For Group 2, the matching-to-sample stimuli were abstract figures only. EEG data recorded during the semantic judgment tasks showed waveform patterns compatible with prior studies of semantic relations in Group 1 but not in Group 2.

Emotional Faces in Symbolic Relations: A Happiness Superiority Effect Involving the Equivalence Paradigm.

The stimulus equivalence paradigm presented operational criteria to identify symbolic functions in observable behaviors. When humans match dissimilar stimuli (e.g., words to pictures), equivalence relations between those stimuli are likely to be demonstrated through behavioral tests derived from the logical properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. If these properties are confirmed, one can say that those stimuli are members of an equivalence class in which each member is substitutable for the others. A number of studies, which have established equivalence classes comprised of arbitrary stimuli and pictures of faces expressing emotions, have found that valences of the faces affect the relatedness of equivalent stimuli. Importantly, several studies reported stronger relational strength in equivalence classes containing happy faces than in equivalence classes containing angry faces. The processes that may account for this higher degree of relatability of happy faces are not yet known. The current study investigated the dynamics of the symbolic relational responding involving facial expressions of different emotions by means of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). Participants were 186 undergraduate students who were taught to establish two equivalence classes, each comprising pictures of faces expressing either happiness (for one class) or a negative emotion (for another class), and meaningless words. The IRAP effect was taken as an index for the relational strength established between equivalent stimuli in the different equivalence classes. The dynamics of arbitrary relational responding in the course of the four IRAP trial types revealed that the participants exhibited a stronger IRAP effect in trials involving the happy faces and a weaker IRAP effect in trials involving the negative faces. These findings indicate that the happy faces had higher impact on the symbolic relational responding than the negative faces. The potential role played by the orienting function of happy vs. negative faces is discussed. By considering other studies that also reported a happiness superiority effect in other contexts, we present converging evidence for the prioritization of positive affect in emotional, categorical, and symbolic processing.

Electrophysiological investigation of the functional overlap between semantic and equivalence relations

Recent research using the event-related potential (ERP) technique has shown that equivalence relations have properties similar to genuine semantic relations. This study aimed to advance electrophysiological investigations of the functional overlap between semantic and equivalence relations. The N400 component, an index of semantic processing, was used to measure whether semantic relations were experimentally established between arbitrary stimuli. The stimuli became equivalent via a matching-to-sample training designed to maximize the establishment of equivalence relations and the strength of the classes. Non-equivalent pairs of stimuli elicited larger N400 responses than equivalent pairs in electrodes placed over the central and parietal scalp regions, providing additional support for the assumption that stimulus equivalence is an appropriate model of semantic relations. Latency of the N400 component was shorter than in previous studies, probably due to experimental parameters that maximized relational strength. These data raise the possibility that N400 latency may provide a continuous measure of relational strength, thus supplementing the all-or-none character of equivalence tests based on matching to sample...

Electrophysiological investigation of the functional overlap between semantic and equivalence relations

Recent research using the event-related potential (ERP) technique has shown that equivalence relations have properties similar to genuine semantic relations. This study aimed to advance electrophysiological investigations of the functional overlap between semantic and equivalence relations. The N400 component, an index of semantic processing, was used to measure whether semantic relations were experimentally established between arbitrary stimuli. The stimuli became equivalent via a matching-to-sample training designed to maximize the establishment of equivalence relations and the strength of the classes. Non-equivalent pairs of stimuli elicited larger N400 responses than equivalent pairs in electrodes placed over the central and parietal scalp regions, providing additional support for the assumption that stimulus equivalence is an appropriate model of semantic relations. Latency of the N400 component was shorter than in previous studies, probably due to experimental parameters that maximized relational strength. These data raise the possibility that N400 latency may provide a continuous measure of relational strength, thus supplementing the all-or-none character of equivalence tests based on matching to sample.(AU)

Análise da validade e precisão de instrumento de diferencial semântico / Analysis of validity and precision of a semantic differential instrument

Este estudo investigou evidências de validade e precisão de um instrumento de diferencial semântico que tem sido utilizado para medir a transferência de significados entre estímulos equivalentes. Um total de 196 estudantes universitários avaliou fotografias de faces expressando emoções e também figuras abstratas, utilizando um instrumento composto por 13 escalas bipolares ancoradas por adjetivos opostos. A análise fatorial dos dados coletados forneceu indicações da validade do instrumento e os coeficientes alfa obtidos indicam que os dois fatores extraídos nesta análise possuem níveis de precisão aceitáveis, embora um dos fatores deva ser revisto. Discute-se que o modelo de equivalência de estímulos, entendido como um modelo experimental de relações simbólicas, pode se beneficiar de instrumentos capazes de fornecer medidas válidas de transferência de significado.

This study assessed evidence of validity and precision of a semantic differential test that has been used to measure the transfer of meaning among equivalent stimuli. Participants were 196 college students who evaluated pictures of faces expressing emotions and also abstract pictures using an instrument comprised by 13 bipolar scales anchored by opposite adjectives. The factor analysis of the data evidenced the validity of the instrument. Values of alpha coefficients indicated that the factors extracted by this analysis have acceptable levels of precision, although one of the factors might be revised. It is discussed that the stimulus equivalence paradigm, an experimental model for symbolic relations, can benefit from instruments that provide valid measures of meaning transfer.

Análise da validade e precisão de instrumento de diferencial semântico / Analysis of validity and precision of a semantic differential instrument

Este estudo investigou evidências de validade e precisão de um instrumento de diferencial semântico que tem sido utilizado para medir a transferência de significados entre estímulos equivalentes. Um total de 196 estudantes universitários avaliou fotografias de faces expressando emoções e também figuras abstratas, utilizando um instrumento composto por 13 escalas bipolares ancoradas por adjetivos opostos. A análise fatorial dos dados coletados forneceu indicações da validade do instrumento e os coeficientes alfa obtidos indicam que os dois fatores extraídos nesta análise possuem níveis de precisão aceitáveis, embora um dos fatores deva ser revisto. Discute-se que o modelo de equivalência de estímulos, entendido como um modelo experimental de relações simbólicas, pode se beneficiar de instrumentos capazes de fornecer medidas válidas de transferência de significado.(AU)

This study assessed evidence of validity and precision of a semantic differential test that has been used to measure the transfer of meaning among equivalent stimuli. Participants were 196 college students who evaluated pictures of faces expressing emotions and also abstract pictures using an instrument comprised by 13 bipolar scales anchored by opposite adjectives. The factor analysis of the data evidenced the validity of the instrument. Values of alpha coefficients indicated that the factors extracted by this analysis have acceptable levels of precision, although one of the factors might be revised. It is discussed that the stimulus equivalence paradigm, an experimental model for symbolic relations, can benefit from instruments that provide valid measures of meaning transfer.(AU)

Overtraining increases the strength of equivalence relations

The present study investigated whether overtraining of the conditional discriminations that are the prerequisites of equivalence class formation strengthens the relations among stimuli in an equivalence class. Two groups of college students formed equivalence classes that consisted of faces that expressed emotions (A) and arbitrary stimuli (B, C, D, and E). The overtraining group had twice as many training trials as the regular training group. For participants who formed equivalence classes, relational strength was evaluated by the generalization of expressed emotions from the A to the D stimuli, which was measured using a semantic differential. An untrained control group showed semantic differential scores that were positive for happy faces, negative for angry faces, and neutral for the D stimuli. For the experimental groups, the D stimuli, when included in equivalence classes, produced scores that were similar to those produced by the equivalent faces. The overtraining group, however, had average values closer to the values of the faces than the regular training group. These results indicate that the amount of training is an experimental parameter that influences the strength of relations between stimuli that are found to be equivalent in matching-to-sample tests...

Overtraining increases the strength of equivalence relations

The present study investigated whether overtraining of the conditional discriminations that are the prerequisites of equivalence class formation strengthens the relations among stimuli in an equivalence class. Two groups of college students formed equivalence classes that consisted of faces that expressed emotions (A) and arbitrary stimuli (B, C, D, and E). The overtraining group had twice as many training trials as the regular training group. For participants who formed equivalence classes, relational strength was evaluated by the generalization of expressed emotions from the A to the D stimuli, which was measured using a semantic differential. An untrained control group showed semantic differential scores that were positive for happy faces, negative for angry faces, and neutral for the D stimuli. For the experimental groups, the D stimuli, when included in equivalence classes, produced scores that were similar to those produced by the equivalent faces. The overtraining group, however, had average values closer to the values of the faces than the regular training group. These results indicate that the amount of training is an experimental parameter that influences the strength of relations between stimuli that are found to be equivalent in matching-to-sample tests.(AU)

Avaliação do efeito de dica semântica e da indução de significado entre estímulos abstratos aquivalentes / Evaluation of semantic priming effect and induction of meaning among abstract equivalent stimuli

Relações semânticas entre estímulos equivalentes foram avaliadas utilizando "tentativas de decisão léxica" e diferencial semântico. Foram utilizadas as estruturas de treino conhecidas como "um-para-muitos" e "muitos-para-um" na geração de três classes de estímulos equivalentes envolvendo cinco conjuntos de estímulos: A, B, C, D e E. Para um grupo de participantes, denominado de Grupo Um para Muitos (GUM), as relações diretamente treinadas obedeciam à estrutura AB, BC, CD e CE; um outro grupo experimental, denominado de Grupo Muitos para Um (GMU), foi treinado na estrutura DC, EC, CB e BA. Para os dois grupos, os estímulos do conjunto B eram fotografias de faces expressando emoções e os estímulos dos conjuntos A, C, D e E eram figuras abstratas. A seguir, duas figuras (já vistas ou novas) eram apresentadas em seqüência, como "dica" e "alvo", em tentativas em que o participante respondia se reconhecia ou não a figura alvo. As respostas foram mais rápidas quando dica e alvo pertenciam à mesma classe, reproduzindo com estímulos abstratos equivalentes o efeito de dica semântica. Figuras abstratas foram então avaliadas por diferencial semântico. As avaliações do GUM foram similares às avaliações das faces por um grupo controle e as avaliações do GMU não foram. Os dados sugerem que a intensidade relativa da transferência de significados entre estímulos equivalentes pode depender da direção das relações que os participantes devem estabelecer.

Semantic relations among equivalent stimuli were evaluated by lexical decision tasks and a semantic differential. Two training structures, known as "one-to-many" and "many-to-one", were employed in order to generate three classes of equivalent stimuli involving five sets of stimuli: A, B, C, D and E. Stimuli for set B were pictures of faces expressing emotions whereas stimuli for sets A, C, D and E were abstract pictures. For one group of participants, the One-to-many Group, the directly trained relations were AB, BC, CD and CE; for the other experimental group, the Many-to-one Group, the directly trained relations were DC, EC, CB and BA. Two pictures were then presented in sequence as "prime" and "target" in trials in which participants responded whether they recognized or not the target. Responses were faster when prime and target belonged to the same equivalent class, reproducing the semantic priming effect. Abstract pictures were then evaluated through the semantic differential. Evaluations by the One-to-many Group were similar to the evaluations of the faces made by a control group, but those made by the Many-to-one Group were not. The data suggest that the transfer of meaning among equivalent stimuli may depend on the relations which are established by the participants.

Avaliação do efeito de dica semântica e da indução de significado entre estímulos abstratos aquivalentes / Evaluation of semantic priming effect and induction of meaning among abstract equivalent stimuli

Relações semânticas entre estímulos equivalentes foram avaliadas utilizando "tentativas de decisão léxica" e diferencial semântico. Foram utilizadas as estruturas de treino conhecidas como "um-para-muitos" e "muitos-para-um" na geração de três classes de estímulos equivalentes envolvendo cinco conjuntos de estímulos: A, B, C, D e E. Para um grupo de participantes, denominado de Grupo Um para Muitos (GUM), as relações diretamente treinadas obedeciam à estrutura AB, BC, CD e CE; um outro grupo experimental, denominado de Grupo Muitos para Um (GMU), foi treinado na estrutura DC, EC, CB e BA. Para os dois grupos, os estímulos do conjunto B eram fotografias de faces expressando emoções e os estímulos dos conjuntos A, C, D e E eram figuras abstratas. A seguir, duas figuras (já vistas ou novas) eram apresentadas em seqüência, como "dica" e "alvo", em tentativas em que o participante respondia se reconhecia ou não a figura alvo. As respostas foram mais rápidas quando dica e alvo pertenciam à mesma classe, reproduzindo com estímulos abstratos equivalentes o efeito de dica semântica. Figuras abstratas foram então avaliadas por diferencial semântico. As avaliações do GUM foram similares às avaliações das faces por um grupo controle e as avaliações do GMU não foram. Os dados sugerem que a intensidade relativa da transferência de significados entre estímulos equivalentes pode depender da direção das relações que os participantes devem estabelecer.(AU)

Semantic relations among equivalent stimuli were evaluated by lexical decision tasks and a semantic differential. Two training structures, known as "one-to-many" and "many-to-one", were employed in order to generate three classes of equivalent stimuli involving five sets of stimuli: A, B, C, D and E. Stimuli for set B were pictures of faces expressing emotions whereas stimuli for sets A, C, D and E were abstract pictures. For one group of participants, the One-to-many Group, the directly trained relations were AB, BC, CD and CE; for the other experimental group, the Many-to-one Group, the directly trained relations were DC, EC, CB and BA. Two pictures were then presented in sequence as "prime" and "target" in trials in which participants responded whether they recognized or not the target. Responses were faster when prime and target belonged to the same equivalent class, reproducing the semantic priming effect. Abstract pictures were then evaluated through the semantic differential. Evaluations by the One-to-many Group were similar to the evaluations of the faces made by a control group, but those made by the Many-to-one Group were not. The data suggest that the transfer of meaning among equivalent stimuli may depend on the relations which are established by the participants.(AU)

Teaching Generative Reading Via Recombination of Minimal Textual Units: A Legacy of Verbal Behavior to Children in Brazil.

This paper reports results of two studies that sought to teach generative reading skills to a large group of Brazilian children who were exhibiting protracted failure in school. Inspired by Skinner's analysis of verbal relations and minimal verbal units, the methodology took advantage of certain characteristics of Portuguese. Many words in this language are comprised of two-letter syllabic units (e.g., BO+LA= ball, CA+BO= handle, LA+TA= can) that can be recombined to form new words (e.g., BOCA= mouth, BOTA= boot), thus establishing a route to generative reading via recombinative generalization. Such syllabic units were incorporated within curricular framework that used matching-to-sample and learning by exclusion methods to teach matching relations involving pictures, printed and spoken words, and printed and spoken syllables. Study 1 was conducted within a university-based learning center that maintained certain aspects of laboratory conditions. It showed that teaching textual relations between dictated and printed syllables could control procedurally the inter- and intra-participant variability observed in past studies that lacked this feature -resulting in virtually universally positive teaching outcomes. Study 2 was conducted in a public school programs that applied the same basic training methodology. Positive training outcomes in an experimental group were approximately 3-5 times greater than that in a placebo control group. Together, these studies illustrate that the functional analysis in Verbal Behavior is having a direct impact in educational science in Brazil. It has led to procedures that can be effectively translated from the laboratory to the community via delivery systems that can be implemented in the developing world.

Treinos de discriminação simples e formação de classes funcionais de estímulos em cães / Simple discrimination training and formation of functional stimulus classes by dogs

O presente estudo verificou a formação de classes de estímulos funcionalmente equivalentes e learning set a partir de treinos de discriminação simples simultâneas e repetidas reversões nas funções dos estímulos, com uso de reforçadores diferentes e específicos para cada classe. Os sujeitos foram três cães sem raça definida. Nas tentativas de teste foram encontradas, em média, porcentagens de acertos de 93,6. Esses dados somados aos resultados das primeiras tentativas de apresentação de cada par de estímulos atestaram a reversão instântanea das funções de estímulos, ambos indicando a formação de classes funcionalmente equivalentes. Os dados de learning set não foram conclusivos a respeito da progressão na eficiência dos desempenhos nas reversões, possivelmente. por influência da preferência diferencial dos cães pelos reforçadores específicos utilizados em cada classe. O procedimento parece adequado e econômico para as investigações na área de comportamento simbólico em animais não humanos.

This study attempted to verify the establishment of functional classes and learning set in dogs througha simple discrimination procedure with repeated reversals that included specific reinforcers for eachstimulus class. Two stimuli were presented in each trial and the subject had to choose one of them byjumping in its direction. After being training in such procedure, three dogs responded correctly inmore than 90% of the test trials. These performances and analysis of the first responses in the testsessions provided evidences of the establishment of functional stimulus classes. Data from therepeated reversals training did not provided evidences of the establishment of a learning set by thedogs. The discussion examines whether the non-establishment of a learning set could be influenced bypreferences for specific reinforcers. The procedure seems adequate and economical in investigationson symbolic potential of nonhuman animals.

Treinos de discriminação simples e formação de classes funcionais de estímulos em cães / Simple discrimination training and formation of functional stimulus classes by dogs

O presente estudo verificou a formação de classes de estímulos funcionalmente equivalentes e learning set a partir de treinos de discriminação simples simultâneas e repetidas reversões nas funções dos estímulos, com uso de reforçadores diferentes e específicos para cada classe. Os sujeitos foram três cães sem raça definida. Nas tentativas de teste foram encontradas, em média, porcentagens de acertos de 93,6. Esses dados somados aos resultados das primeiras tentativas de apresentação de cada par de estímulos atestaram a reversão instântanea das funções de estímulos, ambos indicando a formação de classes funcionalmente equivalentes. Os dados de learning set não foram conclusivos a respeito da progressão na eficiência dos desempenhos nas reversões, possivelmente. por influência da preferência diferencial dos cães pelos reforçadores específicos utilizados em cada classe. O procedimento parece adequado e econômico para as investigações na área de comportamento simbólico em animais não humanos (AU)

Medida do grau de relacionamento entre estímulos equivalentes / Measuring the relatedness of equivalent stimuli

Este estudo apresenta um procedimento para verificar a existência de "graus de relacionamento" diferentes entre estímulos equivalentes por meio de uma medida quantitativa de compartilhamento de funções. Dois grupos de estudantes universitários participaram do estudo. Os participantes do grupo experimental estabeleceram classes de equivalência entre figuras abstratas e fotografias de faces expressando alegria, raiva e nojo. Em seguida, avaliaram algumas das figuras abstratas usando um instrumento de diferencial semântico. O mesmo instrumento foi utilizado na avaliação das faces e figuras pelos participantes do grupo controle, não treinados a estabelecer relações entre esses estímulos. Esses últimos participantes avaliaram as figuras como neutras e as avaliações que fizeram das faces corresponderam às avaliações das figuras equivalentes a elas feitas pelos participantes do grupo experimental. A comparação entre os valores atribuídos às faces e às figuras dá uma medida quantitativa do grau de relacionamento entre esses estímulos e essa medida pode ser usada no estudo de parâmetros da formação de classes como o número de nódulos.

There are methodological difficulties to quantify the relatedness of equivalent stimuli. The purpose of this study was to create an instrument that could be helpful in this process. Two groups of college students took part in this study. The experimental group established equivalence classes comprised of abstract pictures and pictures of faces expressing anger, happiness and disgust. They then evaluated some of these pictures with a semantic differential. The control group used the same instrument in evaluating faces and figures, untrained in establishing relations between those stimuli. The control group assessed the figures as neutral and their assessment of the faces corresponded to that carried out by the participants of the experimental group - to them, the figures were equivalents to the faces. The comparison between the values attributed to the faces and figures provides a quantitative measurement of the degree of relatedness between those stimuli and that may be used to study parameters such as the number of nodes.

Ações pelo controle reprodutivo e posse responsável de animais domésticos interpretadas à luz do conceito de metacontingência / Actions for reproductive control and responsible ownership of domestic animals interpreted through the concept of metacontingency

A adoção do conceito de metacontingência pode orientar a criação de modelos explicativos para práticasabraçadas por uma comunidade e também ajudar no planejamento de políticas públicas mais eficientes no alcancede seus objetivos. Este trabalho delineia um conjunto de contingências comportamentais entrelaçadas na tentativade analisar o estabelecimento de ações pela promoção do controle reprodutivo de cães e gatos e pela posse responsáveldesses animais numa cidade do interior do estado de São Paulo. A efetividade das ações desenvolvidas parecerelacionada a interações que criaram contingências reforçadoras para entidades de proteção animal que atuam nacidade, para o poder público municipal, para clínicas veterinárias particulares e para proprietários de cães e gatos.Cada um desses agentes tem, possivelmente, interesses distintos, mas as interações estabelecidas entre eles parecemter criado condições que favoreceram e fortaleceram a realização de cirurgias de esterilização de cães e gatos em largaescala, combinadas com medidas educativas, punitivas e de monitoramento estruturadas para promover a posseresponsável de animais domésticos. Essas contingências interligadas tiveram como produtos agregados a esterilizaçãode quase dez mil animais em cinco anos, uma expressiva diminuição no número de filhotes abandonados e umaumento na expectativa de vida dos cães e gatos da cidade.(AU)

The analysis of metacontingencies can guide the creation of explicative models for social practices and can alsobe helpful in the planning of more effective public policies in achieving these goals. The present work delineates aset of interlocked behavioral contingencies that most likely contributed to the establishment of reproductivecontrol and responsible ownership of dogs and cats practices in a São Paulo state town. The effectiveness of theseactions seems related to interactions that created reinforced contingencies for animal protection societies, municipalgovernment, particular vet clinics and owners of dogs and cats. Each of these agents probably has different interestsbut the interactions established between them apparently created conditions that supported and strengthened therealization of sterilization surgeries in dogs and cats in large scale combined with educative, punitive and monitoringmeasures structured to promote responsible ownership of domestic animals. These interlocked contingencies hadas aggregated products the sterilization of almost ten thousand animals in five years, an expressive diminution inthe number of abandoned litters and increased life expectancy for the dogs and cats in town.(AU)

Medida do grau de relacionamento entre estímulos equivalentes / Measuring the relatedness of equivalent stimuli

Este estudo apresenta um procedimento para verificar a existência de 'graus de relacionamento' diferentes entre estímulos equivalentes por meio de uma medida quantitativa de compartilhamento de funções. Dois grupos de estudantes universitários participaram do estudo. Os participantes do grupo experimental estabeleceram classes de equivalência entre figuras abstratas e fotografias de faces expressando alegria, raiva e nojo. Em seguida, avaliaram algumas das figuras abstratas usando um instrumento de diferencial semântico. O mesmo instrumento foi utilizado na avaliação das faces e figuras pelos participantes do grupo controle, não treinados a estabelecer relações entre esses estímulos. Esses últimos participantes avaliaram as figuras como neutras e as avaliações que fizeram das faces corresponderam às avaliações das figuras equivalentes a elas feitas pelos participantes do grupo experimental. A comparação entre os valores atribuídos às faces e às figuras dá uma medida quantitativa do grau de relacionamento entre esses estímulos e essa medida pode ser usada no estudo de parâmetros da formação de classes como o número de nódulos.(AU)

There are methodological difficulties to quantify the relatedness of equivalent stimuli. The purpose of this study was to create an instrument that could be helpful in this process. Two groups of college students took part in this study. The experimental group established equivalence classes comprised of abstract pictures and pictures of faces expressing anger, happiness and disgust. They then evaluated some of these pictures with a semantic differential. The control group used the same instrument in evaluating faces and figures, untrained in establishing relations between those stimuli. The control group assessed the figures as neutral and their assessment of the faces corresponded to that carried out by the participants of the experimental group - to them, the figures were equivalents to the faces. The comparison between the values attributed to the faces and figures provides a quantitative measurement of the degree of relatedness between those stimuli and that may be used to study parameters such as the number of nodes.(AU)

Efeitos de seis manipulações experimentais sobre a aprendizagem de uma nova resposta de fuga / Effects of six experimental manipulations on the learning of a new escape response

Denomina-se desamparo aprendido o efeito deletério da exposição prévia a situações aversivas incontroláveis sobre a aquisição de novas respostas. Este estudo investigou o efeito de seis manipulações experimentais sobre a aquisição de uma resposta de fuga. Quarenta e oito ratos foram distribuídos em seis grupos de oito. Cada sujeito foi submetido a três sessões experimentais. Na primeira sessão, conforme o grupo a que pertencia, ou o animal recebia choques que podia interromper ou recebia choques que só podiam ser interrompidos por outro sujeito, ou não recebia tratamento aversivo. Na segunda sessão, metade dos animais recebia choques incontroláveis e a outra metade não recebia estimulação elétrica. Na terceira sessão, todos os sujeitos tinham a possibilidade de desligar os choques. Os sujeitos que puderam interromper a apresentação dos estímulos na primeira sessão, mesmo aqueles que receberam choques incontroláveis na sessão seguinte, aprenderam a resposta de fuga na última sessão, o que não se verificou entre os animais submetidos inicialmente à incontrolabilidade. Estes resultados replicam o que se obtém normalmente em pesquisas que tratam do desamparo aprendido. Porém, o fraco desempenho dos sujeitos que não receberam choques nas duas primeiras sessões coloca em questão a contingência utilizada para testar a aprendizagem.

Efeitos de seis manipulações experimentais sobre a aprendizagem de uma nova resposta de fuga / Effects of six experimental manipulations on the learning of a new escape response

Denomina-se desamparo aprendido o efeito deletério da exposição prévia a situações aversivas incontroláveis sobre a aquisição de novas respostas. Este estudo investigou o efeito de seis manipulações experimentais sobre a aquisição de uma resposta de fuga. Quarenta e oito ratos foram distribuídos em seis grupos de oito. Cada sujeito foi submetido a três sessões experimentais. Na primeira sessão, conforme o grupo a que pertencia, ou o animal recebia choques que podia interromper ou recebia choques que só podiam ser interrompidos por outro sujeito, ou não recebia tratamento aversivo. Na segunda sessão, metade dos animais recebia choques incontroláveis e a outra metade não recebia estimulação elétrica. Na terceira sessão, todos os sujeitos tinham a possibilidade de desligar os choques. Os sujeitos que puderam interromper a apresentação dos estímulos na primeira sessão, mesmo aqueles que receberam choques incontroláveis na sessão seguinte, aprenderam a resposta de fuga na última sessão, o que não se verificou entre os animais submetidos inicialmente à incontrolabilidade. Estes resultados replicam o que se obtém normalmente em pesquisas que tratam do desamparo aprendido. Porém, o fraco desempenho dos sujeitos que não receberam choques nas duas primeiras sessões coloca em questão a contingência utilizada para testar a aprendizagem(AU)