Structure and Dynamics of a Thermostable Alcohol Dehydrogenase from the Antarctic Psychrophile Moraxella sp. TAE123.

The structure of a recombinant (His-tagged at C-terminus) alcohol dehydrogenase (MoADH) from the cold-adapted bacterium Moraxella sp. TAE123 has been refined with X-ray diffraction data extending to 1.9 Å resolution. The enzyme assumes a homo-tetrameric structure. Each subunit comprises two distinct structural domains: the catalytic domain (residues 1-150 and 288-340/345) and the nucleotide-binding domain (residues 151-287). There are two Zn2+ ions in each protein subunit. Two additional zinc ions have been found in the crystal structure between symmetry-related subunits. The structure has been compared with those of homologous enzymes from Geobacillus stearothermophilus (GsADH), Escherichia coli (EcADH), and Thermus sp. ATN1 (ThADH) that thrive in environments of diverse temperatures. Unexpectedly, MoADH has been found active from 10 to at least 53 °C and unfolds at 89 °C according to circular dichroism spectropolarimetry data. MoADH with substrate ethanol exhibits a small value of activation enthalpy ΔH ‡ of 30 kJ mol-1. Molecular dynamics simulations for single subunits of the closely homologous enzymes MoADH and GsADH performed at 280, 310, and 340 K showed enhanced wide-ranging mobility of MoADH at high temperatures and generally lower but more distinct and localized mobility for GsADH. Principal component analysis of the fluctuations of both ADHs resulted in a prominent open-close transition of the structural domains mainly at 280 K for MoADH and 340 K for GsADH. In conclusion, MoADH is a very thermostable, cold-adapted enzyme and the small value of activation enthalpy allows the enzyme to function adequately at low temperatures.

The putative polysaccharide deacetylase Ba0331: cloning, expression, crystallization and structure determination.

Ba0331 is a putative polysaccharide deacetylase from Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of the disease anthrax, that contributes to adaptation of the bacterium under extreme conditions and to maintenance of the cell shape. In the present study, the crystal structure of Ba0331 was determined at 2.6 Šresolution. The structure consists of two domains: a fibronectin type 3-like (Fn3-like) domain and a NodB catalytic domain. The latter is present in all carbohydrate esterase family 4 enzymes, while a comparative analysis of the Fn3-like domain revealed structural plasticity despite the retention of the conserved Fn3-like domain characteristics.

Polysaccharide deacetylases serve as new targets for the design of inhibitors against Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus.

Peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) deacetylases (PGNGdacs) from bacterial pathogens are validated targets for the development of novel antimicrobial agents. In this study we examined the in vitro inhibition of hydroxamate ligand N-hydroxy-4-(naphthalene-1-yl)benzamide (NHNB), a selective inhibitor of histone deacetylases-8 (HDAC8), against two PGNGdacs namely BC1974 and BC1960 from B. cereus, highly homologous to BA1977 and BA1961 of B. anthracis, respectively. Kinetic analysis showed that this compound functions as a competitive inhibitor of both enzymes with apparent Ki's of 8.7 µM (for BC1974) and 66 µM (for BC1960), providing thus the most potent CE4 inhibitor reported to date. NHNB was tested in antibacterial assays and showed bactericidal activity against both examined pathogens acting as a multi-target drug. This compound can serve as lead for the development of inhibitors targeting the conserved active sites of the multiple polysaccharide deacetylases (PDAs) of both pathogens.

Structures of the Peptidoglycan N-Acetylglucosamine Deacetylase Bc1974 and Its Complexes with Zinc Metalloenzyme Inhibitors.

The cell wall peptidoglycan is recognized as a primary target of the innate immune system, and usually its disintegration results in bacterial lysis. Bacillus cereus, a close relative of the highly virulent Bacillus anthracis, contains 10 polysaccharide deacetylases. Among these, the peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase Bc1974 is the highest homologue to the Bacillus anthracis Ba1977 that is required for full virulence and is involved in resistance to the host's lysozyme. These metalloenzymes belong to the carbohydrate esterase family 4 (CE4) and are attractive targets for the development of new anti-infective agents. Herein we report the first X-ray crystal structures of the NodB domain of Bc1974, the conserved catalytic core of CE4s, in the unliganded form and in complex with four known metalloenzyme inhibitors and two amino acid hydroxamates that target the active site metal. These structures revealed the presence of two conformational states of a catalytic loop known as motif-4 (MT4), which were not observed previously for peptidoglycan deacetylases, but were recently shown in the structure of a Vibrio clolerae chitin deacetylase. By employing molecular docking of a substrate model, we describe a catalytic mechanism that probably involves initial binding of the substrate in a receptive, more open state of MT4 and optimal catalytic activity in the closed state of MT4, consistent with the previous observations. The ligand-bound structures presented here, in addition to the five Bc1974 inhibitors identified, provide a valuable basis for the design of antibacterial agents that target the peptidoglycan deacetylase Ba1977.

Unusual α-Carbon Hydroxylation of Proline Promotes Active-Site Maturation.

The full extent of proline (Pro) hydroxylation has yet to be established, as it is largely unexplored in bacteria. We describe here a so far unknown Pro hydroxylation activity which occurs in active sites of polysaccharide deacetylases (PDAs) from bacterial pathogens, modifying the protein backbone at the Cα atom of a Pro residue to produce 2-hydroxyproline (2-Hyp). This process modifies with high specificity a conserved Pro, shares with the deacetylation reaction the same active site and one catalytic residue, and utilizes molecular oxygen as source for the hydroxyl group oxygen of 2-Hyp. By providing additional hydrogen-bonding capacity, the Pro→2-Hyp conversion alters the active site and enhances significantly deacetylase activity, probably by creating a more favorable environment for transition-state stabilization. Our results classify this process as an active-site "maturation", which is highly atypical in being a protein backbone-modifying activity, rather than a side-chain-modifying one.

Two Putative Polysaccharide Deacetylases Are Required for Osmotic Stability and Cell Shape Maintenance in Bacillus anthracis.

Membrane-anchored lipoproteins have a broad range of functions and play key roles in several cellular processes in Gram-positive bacteria. BA0330 and BA0331 are the only lipoproteins among the 11 known or putative polysaccharide deacetylases of Bacillus anthracis. We found that both lipoproteins exhibit unique characteristics. BA0330 and BA0331 interact with peptidoglycan, and BA0330 is important for the adaptation of the bacterium to grow in the presence of a high concentration of salt, whereas BA0331 contributes to the maintenance of a uniform cell shape. They appear not to alter the peptidoglycan structure and do not contribute to lysozyme resistance. The high resolution x-ray structure of BA0330 revealed a C-terminal domain with the typical fold of a carbohydrate esterase 4 and an N-terminal domain unique for this family, composed of a two-layered (4 + 3) ß-sandwich with structural similarity to fibronectin type 3 domains. Our data suggest that BA0330 and BA0331 have a structural role in stabilizing the cell wall of B. anthracis.

N-acetylglucosamine deacetylases modulate the anchoring of the gamma-glutamyl capsule to the cell wall of Bacillus anthracis.

Bacillus anthracis has a complex cell wall structure composed of a peptidoglycan (PG) layer to which major structures are anchored such as a neutral polysaccharide, an S-layer, and a poly-γ-D-glutamate (PDGA) capsule. Many of these structures have central roles in the biology of B. anthracis, particularly, in virulence. However, little attention has been devoted to structurally study the PG and how it is modified in the presence of these secondary cell wall components. We present here the fine structure of the PG of the encapsulated RPG1 strain harboring both pXO1 and pXO2 virulence plasmids. We show that B. anthracis has a high degree of cross-linking and its GlcNAc residues are highly modified by N-deacetylation. The PG composition is not dependent on the presence of either LPXTG proteins or the capsule. Using NMR analysis of the PG-PDGA complex, we provide evidence for the anchoring of the PDGA to the glucosamine residues. We show that anchoring of the PDGA capsule is impaired in two PG N-deacetylase mutants, Ba1961 and Ba3679. Thus, these multiple N-deactylase activities would constitute excellent drug targets in B. anthracis by simultaneously affecting its resistance to lysozyme and to phagocytosis impairing B. anthracis survival in the host.

Structure determination of BA0150, a putative polysaccharide deacetylase from Bacillus anthracis.

Polysaccharide deacetylases are bacterial enzymes that catalyze the deacetylation of acetylated sugars on the membranes of Gram-positive bacteria, allowing them to be unrecognized by host immune systems. Inhibition of these enzymes would disrupt such pathogenic defensive mechanisms and therefore offers a promising route for the development of novel antibiotic therapeutics. Here, the first X-ray crystal structure of BA0150, a putative polysaccharide deacetylase from Bacillus anthracis, is reported to 2.0 Å resolution. The overall structure maintains the conserved (α/ß)8 fold that is characteristic of this family of enzymes. The lack of a catalytic metal ion and a distinctive metal-binding site, however, suggest that this enzyme is not a functional polysaccharide deacetylase.

Structure determination through homology modelling and torsion-angle simulated annealing: application to a polysaccharide deacetylase from Bacillus cereus.

The structure of BC0361, a polysaccharide deacetylase from Bacillus cereus, has been determined using an unconventional molecular-replacement procedure. Tens of putative models of the C-terminal domain of the protein were constructed using a multitude of homology-modelling algorithms, and these were tested for the presence of signal in molecular-replacement calculations. Of these, only the model calculated by the SAM-T08 server gave a consistent and convincing solution, but the resulting model was too inaccurate to allow phase determination to proceed to completion. The application of slow-cooling torsion-angle simulated annealing (started from a very high temperature) drastically improved this initial model to the point of allowing phasing through cycles of model building and refinement to be initiated. The structure of the protein is presented with emphasis on the presence of a C(α)-modified proline at its active site, which was modelled as an α-hydroxy-L-proline.

Distinct functions of polysaccharide deacetylases in cell shape, neutral polysaccharide synthesis and virulence of Bacillus anthracis.

Peptidoglycan deacetylases (PGNG-dacs) belong to the Carbohydrate Esterase Family 4 (CE4) and have been described as required for bacterial evasion to lysozyme and innate immune responses. Interestingly, there is an unusual occurrence of 10 putative polysaccharide deacetylases, including five PGNG-dacs, in the Bacillus sp. genomes, especially B. cereus and B. anthracis. To elucidate the physiological role of these multiple deacetylases, we employed genetic analysis and protein localization studies of five putative PGNG-dacs from B. anthracis as well as biochemical analysis of their corresponding homologues from B. cereus. Our data confirm that three enzymes are PGNG-dacs. While BA1977, associated with lateral peptidoglycan synthesis, is a bona fide peptidoglycan deacetylase involved in resistance to host lysozyme and required for full virulence, BA1961 and BA3679 participate in the biogenesis of the peptidoglycan during both elongation and cell division. Furthermore, two enzymes are important for neutral polysaccharide attachment to PG and consequently anchoring of S-layer proteins (BA5436) and for polysaccharide modification (BA2944). Our results provide novel and fundamental insights into the function of polysaccharide deacetylases in a major bioterrorism agent.

LmbE proteins from Bacillus cereus are de-N-acetylases with broad substrate specificity and are highly similar to proteins in Bacillus anthracis.

The genomes of Bacillus cereus and its closest relative Bacillus anthracis each contain two LmbE protein family homologs: BC1534 (BA1557) and BC3461 (BA3524). Only a few members of this family have been biochemically characterized including N-acetylglucosaminylphosphatidyl inositol (GlcNAc-PI), 1-D-myo-inosityl-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-alpha-D-glucopyranoside (GlcNAc-Ins), N,N'-diacetylchitobiose (GlcNAc(2)) and lipoglycopeptide antibiotic de-N-acetylases. All these enzymes share a common feature in that they de-N-acetylate the N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) moiety of their substrates. The bc1534 gene has previously been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzyme was purified and its 3D structure determined. In this study, the bc3461 gene from B. cereus ATCC14579 was cloned and expressed in E. coli. The recombinant enzymes BC1534 (EC 3.5.1.-) and BC3461 were biochemically characterized. The enzymes have different molecular masses, pH and temperature optima and broad substrate specificity, de-N-acetylating GlcNAc and N-acetylchito-oligomers (GlcNAc(2), GlcNAc(3) and GlcNAc(4)), as well as GlcNAc-1P, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-1 phosphate; GlcNAc-6P, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-6 phosphate; GalNAc, N-acetyl-D-galactosamine; ManNAc, N-acetyl-D-mannosamine; UDP-GlcNAc, uridine 5'-diphosphate N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. However, the enzymes were not active on radiolabeled glycol chitin, peptidoglycan from B. cereus, N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyl-(beta-1,4)-N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (GMDP) or N-acetyl-D-GlcN-Nalpha1-6-D-myo-inositol-1-HPO(4)-octadecyl (GlcNAc-I-P-C(18)). Kinetic analysis of the activity of BC1534 and BC3461 on GlcNAc and GlcNAc(2) revealed that GlcNAc(2) is the favored substrate for both native enzymes. Based on the recently determined crystal structure of BC1534, a mutational analysis identified functional key residues, highlighting their importance for the catalytic mechanism and the substrate specificity of the enzyme. The catalytic efficiencies of BC1534 variants were significantly decreased compared to the native enzyme. An alignment-based tree places both de-N-acetylases in functional categories that are different from those of other LmbE proteins.

Coordination sphere of the third metal site is essential to the activity and metal selectivity of alkaline phosphatases.

Alkaline phosphatases (APs) are commercially applied enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphate monoesters by a reaction involving three active site metal ions. We have previously identified H135 as the key residue for controlling activity of the psychrophilic TAB5 AP (TAP). In this article, we describe three X-ray crystallographic structures on TAP variants H135E and H135D in complex with a variety of metal ions. The structural analysis is supported by thermodynamic and kinetic data. The AP catalysis essentially requires octahedral coordination in the M3 site, but stability is adjusted with the conformational freedom of the metal ion. Comparison with the mesophilic Escherichia coli, AP shows differences in the charge transfer network in providing the chemically optimal metal combination for catalysis. Our results provide explanation why the TAB5 and E. coli APs respond in an opposite way to mutagenesis in their active sites. They provide a lesson on chemical fine tuning and the importance of the second coordination sphere in defining metal specificity in enzymes. Understanding the framework of AP catalysis is essential in the efforts to design even more powerful tools for modern biotechnology.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of BcZBP, A Deacetylase from Bacillus cereus: Active Site Loops Determine Substrate Accessibility and Specificity.

BcZBP is an LmbE-like, homohexameric, zinc-dependent deacetylase from the opportunistic pathogen Bacillus cereus with three, thus far uncharacterized, homologues in B. anthracis. Although its specific substrate is still unknown, the enzyme has been shown to preferentially deacetylate N-acetylglucosamine and diacetylchitobiose via an active site based on a zinc-binding motif of the type HXDDXnH. In the crystal structure, the active site is located at a deep and partially blocked cleft formed at the interface between monomers related by the molecular 3-fold axis, although the major, in structural terms, building block of the enzyme is not the trimer, but the intertwined dimer. Here, we report results from a 50 ns molecular dynamics simulation of BcZBP in explicit solvent with full electrostatics and show that (i) the view of the intertwined dimer as the major structural and functional building block of this class of hexameric enzymes is possibly an oversimplification of the rather complex dynamics observed in the simulation, (ii) the most mobile (with respect to their atomic fluctuations) parts of the structure coincide with three surface loops surrounding the active site, and (iii) these mobile loops define the active site's accessibility, and may be implicated in the determination of the enzyme's specificity.

Directed evolution on the cold adapted properties of TAB5 alkaline phosphatase.

Psychrophilic alkaline phosphatase (AP) from the Antarctic strain TAB5 was subjected to directed evolution in order to identify the key residues steering the enzyme's cold-adapted activity and stability. A round of random mutagenesis and further recombination yielded three thermostable and six thermolabile variants of the TAB5 AP. All of the isolated variants were characterised by their residual activity after heat treatment, Michaelis-Menten kinetics, activation energy and microcalorimetric parameters of unfolding. In addition, they were modelled into the structure of the TAB5 AP. Mutations which affected the cold-adapted properties of the enzyme were all located close to the active site. The destabilised variants H135E and H135E/G149D had 2- and 3-fold higher kcat, respectively, than the wild-type enzyme. Wild-type AP has a complex heat-induced unfolding pattern while the mutated enzymes loose local unfolding transitions and have large shifts of the Tm values. Comparison of the wild-type and mutated TAB5 APs demonstrates that there is a delicate balance between the enzyme activity and stability and that it is possible to improve the activity and thermostability simultaneously as demonstrated in the case of the H135E/G149D variant compared to H135E.

Crystal structure of the BcZBP, a zinc-binding protein from Bacillus cereus.

Bacillus cereus is an opportunistic pathogenic bacterium closely related to Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax in mammals. A significant portion of the B. cereus chromosomal genes are common to B. anthracis, including genes which in B. anthracis code for putative virulence and surface proteins. B. cereus thus provides a convenient model organism for studying proteins potentially associated with the pathogenicity of the highly infectious B. anthracis. The zinc-binding protein of B. cereus, BcZBP, is encoded from the bc1534 gene which has three homologues to B. anthracis. The protein exhibits deacetylase activity with the N-acetyl moiety of the N-acetylglucosamine and the diacetylchitobiose and triacetylchitotriose. However, neither the specific substrate of the BcZBP nor the biochemical pathway have been conclusively identified. Here, we present the crystal structure of BcZBP at 1.8 A resolution. The N-terminal part of the 234 amino acid protein adopts a Rossmann fold whereas the C-terminal part consists of two beta-strands and two alpha-helices. In the crystal, the protein forms a compact hexamer, in agreement with solution data. A zinc binding site and a potential active site have been identified in each monomer. These sites have extensive similarities to those found in two known zinc-dependent hydrolases with deacetylase activity, MshB and LpxC, despite a low degree of amino acid sequence identity. The functional implications and a possible catalytic mechanism are discussed.

Crystal structure of alkaline phosphatase from the Antarctic bacterium TAB5.

Alkaline phosphatases (APs) are non-specific phosphohydrolases that are widely used in molecular biology and diagnostics. We describe the structure of the cold active alkaline phosphatase from the Antarctic bacterium TAB5 (TAP). The fold and the active site geometry are conserved with the other AP structures, where the monomer has a large central beta-sheet enclosed by alpha-helices. The dimer interface of TAP is relatively small, and only a single loop from each monomer replaces the typical crown domain. The structure also has typical cold-adapted features; lack of disulfide bridges, low number of salt-bridges, and a loose dimer interface that completely lacks charged interactions. The dimer interface is more hydrophobic than that of the Escherichia coli AP and the interactions have tendency to pair with backbone atoms, which we propose to result from the cold adaptation of TAP. The structure contains two additional magnesium ions outside of the active site, which we believe to be involved in substrate binding as well as contributing to the local stability. The M4 site stabilises an interaction that anchors the substrate-coordinating R148. The M5 metal-binding site is in a region that stabilises metal coordination in the active site. In other APs the M5 binding area is supported by extensive salt-bridge stabilisation, as well as positively charged patches around the active site. We propose that these charges, and the TAP M5 binding, influence the release of the product phosphate and thus might influence the rate-determining step of the enzyme.

A critical role for peptidoglycan N-deacetylation in Listeria evasion from the host innate immune system.

Listeria monocytogenes is a human intracellular pathogen that is able to survive in the gastrointestinal environment and replicate in macrophages, thus bypassing the early innate immune defenses. Peptidoglycan (PG) is an essential component of the bacterial cell wall readily exposed to the host and, thus, an important target for the innate immune system. Characterization of the PG from L. monocytogenes demonstrated deacetylation of N-acetylglucosamine residues. We identified a PG N-deacetylase gene, pgdA, in L. monocytogenes genome sequence. Inactivation of pgdA revealed the key role of this PG modification in bacterial virulence because the mutant was extremely sensitive to the bacteriolytic activity of lysozyme, and growth was severely impaired after oral and i.v. inoculations. Within macrophage vacuoles, the mutant was rapidly destroyed and induced a massive IFN-beta response in a TLR2 and Nod1-dependent manner. Together, these results reveal that PG N-deacetylation is a highly efficient mechanism used by Listeria to evade innate host defenses. The presence of deacetylase genes in other pathogenic bacteria indicates that PG N-deacetylation could be a general mechanism used by bacteria to evade the host innate immune system.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of the BseCI DNA methyltransferase from Bacillus stearothermophilus in complex with its cognate DNA.

The DNA methyltransferase M.BseCI from Bacillus stearothermophilus (EC 2.1.1.72), a 579-amino-acid enzyme, methylates the N6 atom of the 3' adenine in the sequence 5'-ATCGAT-3'. M.BseCI was crystallized in complex with its cognate DNA. The crystals were found to belong to the hexagonal space group P6, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 87.0, c = 156.1 A, beta = 120.0 degrees and one molecule in the asymmetric unit. Two complete data sets were collected at wavelengths of 1.1 and 2.0 A to 2.5 and 2.8 A resolution, respectively, using synchrotron radiation at 100 K.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary characterization of a putative LmbE-like deacetylase from Bacillus cereus.

The Bacillus cereus BC1534 protein, a putative deacetylase from the LmbE family, has been purified to homogeneity and crystallized using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. Crystals of the 26 kDa protein grown from MPD and acetate buffer belong to space group R32, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 76.7, c = 410.5 A (in the hexagonal setting). A complete native data set was collected to a resolution of 2.5 A from a single cryoprotected crystal using synchrotron radiation. As BC1534 shows significant sequence homology with an LmbE-like protein of known structure from Thermus thermophilus, molecular replacement will be used for crystal structure determination.

Peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosamine deacetylases from Bacillus cereus, highly conserved proteins in Bacillus anthracis.

The genomes of Bacillus cereus and its closest relative Bacillus anthracis contain 10 polysaccharide deacetylase homologues. Six of these homologues have been proposed to be peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosamine deacetylases. Two of these genes, namely bc1960 and bc3618, have been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant enzymes have been purified to homogeneity and further characterized. Both enzymes were effective in deacetylating cell wall peptidoglycan from the Gram(+) Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis and the Gram(-) Helicobacter pylori as well as soluble chitin substrates and N-acetylchitooligomers. However, the enzymes were not active on acetylated xylan. These results provide insight into the substrate specificity of carbohydrate esterase family 4 enzymes. It was revealed that both enzymes deacetylated only the GlcNAc residue of the synthetic muropeptide N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-(beta-1,4)-N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine-D-isoglutamine. Analysis of the constituent muropeptides of peptidoglycan from B. subtilis and H. pylori resulting from incubation of the enzymes BC1960 and BC3618 with these polymers and subsequent hydrolysis by Cellosyl and mutanolysin, respectively, similarly revealed that both enzymes deacetylate GlcNAc residues of peptidoglycan. Kinetic analysis toward GlcNAc(2-6) revealed that GlcNAc4 was the favorable substrate for both enzymes. Identification of the sequence of N-acetychitooligosaccharides (GlcNAc(2-4)) following enzymatic deacetylation by using 1H NMR revealed that both enzymes deacetylate all GlcNAc residues of the oligomers except the reducing end ones. Enzymatic deacetylation of chemically acetylated vegetative peptidoglycan from B. cereus by BC1960 and BC3618 resulted in increased resistance to lysozyme digestion. This is the first biochemical study of bacterial peptidoglycan N-acetylglucosamine deacetylases.