Compositionally and density stratified igneous terrain in Jezero crater, Mars.

Before Perseverance, Jezero crater's floor was variably hypothesized to have a lacustrine, lava, volcanic airfall, or aeolian origin. SuperCam observations in the first 286 Mars days on Mars revealed a volcanic and intrusive terrain with compositional and density stratification. The dominant lithology along the traverse is basaltic, with plagioclase enrichment in stratigraphically higher locations. Stratigraphically lower, layered rocks are richer in normative pyroxene. The lowest observed unit has the highest inferred density and is olivine-rich with coarse (1.5 millimeters) euhedral, relatively unweathered grains, suggesting a cumulate origin. This is the first martian cumulate and shows similarities to martian meteorites, which also express olivine disequilibrium. Alteration materials including carbonates, sulfates, perchlorates, hydrated silicates, and iron oxides are pervasive but low in abundance, suggesting relatively brief lacustrine conditions. Orbital observations link the Jezero floor lithology to the broader Nili-Syrtis region, suggesting that density-driven compositional stratification is a regional characteristic.

The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests.

The SuperCam instrument suite provides the Mars 2020 rover, Perseverance, with a number of versatile remote-sensing techniques that can be used at long distance as well as within the robotic-arm workspace. These include laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), remote time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopies, and visible and infrared (VISIR; separately referred to as VIS and IR) reflectance spectroscopy. A remote micro-imager (RMI) provides high-resolution color context imaging, and a microphone can be used as a stand-alone tool for environmental studies or to determine physical properties of rocks and soils from shock waves of laser-produced plasmas. SuperCam is built in three parts: The mast unit (MU), consisting of the laser, telescope, RMI, IR spectrometer, and associated electronics, is described in a companion paper. The on-board calibration targets are described in another companion paper. Here we describe SuperCam's body unit (BU) and testing of the integrated instrument. The BU, mounted inside the rover body, receives light from the MU via a 5.8 m optical fiber. The light is split into three wavelength bands by a demultiplexer, and is routed via fiber bundles to three optical spectrometers, two of which (UV and violet; 245-340 and 385-465 nm) are crossed Czerny-Turner reflection spectrometers, nearly identical to their counterparts on ChemCam. The third is a high-efficiency transmission spectrometer containing an optical intensifier capable of gating exposures to 100 ns or longer, with variable delay times relative to the laser pulse. This spectrometer covers 535-853 nm ( 105 - 7070 cm - 1 Raman shift relative to the 532 nm green laser beam) with 12 cm - 1 full-width at half-maximum peak resolution in the Raman fingerprint region. The BU electronics boards interface with the rover and control the instrument, returning data to the rover. Thermal systems maintain a warm temperature during cruise to Mars to avoid contamination on the optics, and cool the detectors during operations on Mars. Results obtained with the integrated instrument demonstrate its capabilities for LIBS, for which a library of 332 standards was developed. Examples of Raman and VISIR spectroscopy are shown, demonstrating clear mineral identification with both techniques. Luminescence spectra demonstrate the utility of having both spectral and temporal dimensions. Finally, RMI and microphone tests on the rover demonstrate the capabilities of these subsystems as well.

Robust optimization of the laser induced damage threshold of dielectric mirrors for high power lasers.

We report on a numerical optimization of the laser induced damage threshold of multi-dielectric high reflection mirrors in the sub-picosecond regime. We highlight the interplay between the electric field distribution, refractive index and intrinsic laser induced damage threshold of the materials on the overall laser induced damage threshold (LIDT) of the multilayer. We describe an optimization method of the multilayer that minimizes the field enhancement in high refractive index materials while preserving a near perfect reflectivity. This method yields a significant improvement of the damage resistance since a maximum increase of 40% can be achieved on the overall LIDT of the multilayer.

Author Correction: Understanding the effect of wet etching on damage resistance of surface scratches.

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. The error has been fixed in the paper.

Understanding the effect of wet etching on damage resistance of surface scratches.

Fused silica optics often exhibit surface scratches after polishing that radically reduce their damage resistance at the wavelength of 351 nm in the nanosecond regime. Consequently, chemical treatments after polishing are often used to increase the damage threshold and ensure a safe operation of these optics in large fusion-scale laser facilities. Here, we investigate the reasons for such an improvement. We study the effect of an HF-based wet etching on scratch morphology and propose a simple analytic model to reflect scratch widening during etching. We also use a finite element model to evaluate the effect of the morphological modification induced by etching on the electric field distribution in the vicinity of the scratch. We evidence that this improvement of the scratch damage resistance is due to a reduction of the electric field enhancement. This conclusion is supported by secondary electron microscopy (SEM) imaging of damage sites initiated on scratches after chemical treatment.

Effects of deep wet etching in HF/HNO3 and KOH solutions on the laser damage resistance and surface quality of fused silica optics at 351 nm.

We investigate the interest of deep wet etching with HF/HNO3 or KOH solutions as a final step after polishing to improve fused silica optics laser damage resistance at the wavelength of 351 nm. This comparison is carried out on scratches engineered on high damage threshold polished fused silica optics. We evidence that both KOH and HF/HNO3 solutions are efficient to passivate scratches and thus improve their damage threshold up to the level of the polished surface. The effect of these wet etchings on surface roughness and aspect is also studied. We show that KOH solution exhibit better overall surface quality that HF/HNO3 solution in the tested conditions. Given the safety difficulties associated with the processing with HF, KOH solution appears as a pertinent alternative to HF deep wet etching.

Chemometrics applied to cathodoluminescence images: a new approach to classify pre-Columbian artefacts from northern Peru.

In most archaeological researches, ceramic cathodoluminescence images are conventionally exploited in a descriptive way (paste colour, inclusions). In this study, a new approach was employed: image's RGB histograms were used in order to differentiate several ceramics recently discovered at the archaeological site of San José de Moro located in northern Peru. Cathodoluminescence coupled with chemometric methods appears as a good method to characterize and particularly to produce a systematic classification of complex materials such as archaeological ceramics. Our results were compared with the archaeological and classical background knowledge and this allowed confirming that Mochica Fine Line and Mochica Polychrome were the most similar archaeological groups, at Mochica times, because of the use of the same raw material for production. However, Highland Cajamarca is the most different ceramic group from the other studied ones due to the use of different raw materials from Cajamarca valley located 100 km east of San José de Moro site.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for elemental characterization of calcitic alterations on cave walls.

Cave walls are affected by different kinds of alterations involving preservative issues in the case of ornate caves, in particular regarding the rock art covering the walls. In this context, coralloids correspond to a facies with popcorn-like aspect belonging to the speleothem family, mostly composed of calcium carbonate. The elemental characterization indicates the presence of elements that might be linked to the diagenesis and the expansion of the alterations as demonstrated by prior analyses on stalagmites. In this study, we report the use of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) to characterize the elemental composition of one coralloid sample with a portable instrument allowing punctual measurements and a laboratory mapping setup delivering elemental images with spatial resolution at the micrometric scale, being particularly attentive to Mg, Sr, and Si identified as elements of interest. The complementarity of both instruments allows the determination of the internal structure of the coralloid. Although a validation based on a reference technique is necessary, LIBS data reveal that the external layer of the coralloid is composed of laminations correlated to variations of the LIBS signal of Si. In addition, an interstitial layer showing high LIBS signals for Fe, Al, and Si is interpreted to be a detrital clay interface between the external and the internal part of the coralloid. These preliminary results sustain a possible formation scenario of the coralloid by migration of the elements from the bedrock.

Multi-block analysis coupled to laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for sorting geological materials from caves.

In this study, multi-block analysis was applied for the first time to LIBS spectra provided by a portable LIBS system (IVEA Solution, France) equipped with three compact Czerny-Turner spectrometers covering the spectral ranges 200-397nm, 398-571nm and 572-1000nm. 41 geological samples taken from a laboratory-cave situated in the "Vézère valley", an area rich with prehistoric sites and decorated caves listed as a UNESCO world heritage in the south west of France, were analyzed. They were composed of limestone and clay considered as underlying supports and of two types of alterations referred as moonmilk and coralloid. Common Components and Specific Weights Analysis (CCSWA) allowed sorting moonmilk and coralloid samples. The loadings revealed higher amounts of magnesium, silicon, aluminum and strontium in coralloids and the saliences emphasized that among the three spectrometers installed in the LIBS instrument used in this work; that covering the range 572-1000nm was less contributive. This new approach for processing LIBS data not only provides good results for sorting geological materials but also clearly reveals which spectral range contains most of the information. This specific advantage of multi-block analysis could lead for some applications to simplify the design and to reduce the size of LIBS instruments.

Quantitative Analysis of Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5, Triazine/Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (RDX-PETN) Mixtures by Terahertz Time Domain Spectroscopy.

Absorption spectra of explosives such as hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), and mixtures of both were measured by terahertz time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). Chemometrics was applied to quantitative analysis of terahertz absorbance spectra obtained in transmission mode to predict the relative amounts of RDX and PETN in samples containing pure components or their mixtures. This analysis was challenging because significant spectral overlap prevented identification of each product fingerprint. Partial least squares (PLS) regression models were thus applied to the terahertz spectra. A comparison between the so-called PLS1 and PLS2 algorithms was performed to predict the PETN concentrations in mixture samples. PLS2 demonstrated better predictive ability than PLS1 with RMSE value lower than 3.5 mg for 400 mg total weight pellets. Moreover, the influence of the highly overlapping spectral frequency band was investigated by reducing the original 0.2-3 THz (6-100 cm(-1)) spectral band to 1.8-3 THz (60-100 cm(-1)). The predictive ability was quite similar in both cases, highlighting the excellent ability of chemometrics to perform quantitative analysis when applied to THz-TDS data, even in the case of highly overlapping spectra.

Angular dependence of filament-induced plasma emission from a GaAs surface.

Quantitative measurements of the angular distribution of the plasma line emission from a gallium arsenide (GaAs) target irradiated by a single laser-air filament are reported. These enable reliable estimates of the stand-off ranges possible with single-filament-induced laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy materials detection.

Chemometrics applied to quantitative analysis of ternary mixtures by terahertz spectroscopy.

Chemometrics was applied to qualitative and quantitative analyses of terahertz spectra obtained in transmission mode. A series of mixtures of three pure analytes, namely, citric acid, D-(-)fructose, and α-lactose monohydrate under various concentrations, was prepared as pressed pellets with polyethylene as binder. Then, terahertz absorbance spectra were recorded by terahertz time domain spectroscopy and analyzed. First, principal component analysis allowed one to correctly locate the samples into a ternary diagram. Second, quantitative analysis was achieved by partial least-squares (PLS) regression and artificial neural networks (ANN). The concentrations were predicted with values of relative mean square error lower than 0.9% for the three constituents. As a conclusion, chemometrics was demonstrated to be very efficient for the analysis of the ternary mixtures prepared for this study.

In situ semi-quantitative analysis of polluted soils by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS).

Time-saving, low-cost analyses of soil contamination are required to ensure fast and efficient pollution removal and remedial operations. In this work, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been successfully applied to in situ analyses of polluted soils, providing direct semi-quantitative information about the extent of pollution. A field campaign has been carried out in Brittany (France) on a site presenting high levels of heavy metal concentrations. Results on iron as a major component as well as on lead and copper as minor components are reported. Soil samples were dried and prepared as pressed pellets to minimize the effects of moisture and density on the results. LIBS analyses were performed with a Nd:YAG laser operating at 1064 nm, 60 mJ per 10 ns pulse, at a repetition rate of 10 Hz with a diameter of 500 µm on the sample surface. Good correlations were obtained between the LIBS signals and the values of concentrations deduced from inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). This result proves that LIBS is an efficient method for optimizing sampling operations. Indeed, "LIBS maps" were established directly on-site, providing valuable assistance in optimizing the selection of the most relevant samples for future expensive and time-consuming laboratory analysis and avoiding useless analyses of very similar samples. Finally, it is emphasized that in situ LIBS is not described here as an alternative quantitative analytical method to the usual laboratory measurements but simply as an efficient time-saving tool to optimize sampling operations and to drastically reduce the number of soil samples to be analyzed, thus reducing costs. The detection limits of 200 ppm for lead and 80 ppm for copper reported here are compatible with the thresholds of toxicity; thus, this in situ LIBS campaign was fully validated for these two elements. Consequently, further experiments are planned to extend this study to other chemical elements and other matrices of soils.

Beat the diffraction limit in 3D direct laser writing in photosensitive glass.

Three-dimensional (3D) femtosecond laser direct structuring in transparent materials is widely used for photonic applications. However, the structure size is limited by the optical diffraction. Here we report on a direct laser writing technique that produces subwavelength nanostructures independently of the experimental limiting factors. We demonstrate 3D nanostructures of arbitrary patterns with feature sizes down to 80 nm, less than one tenth of the laser processing wavelength. Its ease of implementation for novel nanostructuring, with its accompanying high precision will open new opportunities for the fabrication of nanostructures for plasmonic and photonic devices and for applications in metamaterials.

Three-dimensional optical data storage using third-harmonic generation in silver zinc phosphate glass.

We demonstrate the possibility of three-dimensional optical data storage inside a specific zinc phosphate glass containing silver by using third-harmonic generation (THG) imaging. Information is stored inside the glass with femtosecond laser irradiation below the refractive index modification threshold. We use the same laser for THG readout. The capability of storage with this technique is discussed.

Optical properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles and nanorods synthesized using an organometallic method.

The emission properties of nanocrystalline ZnO particles prepared following an organometallic synthetic method are investigated. Spherical particles and nanorods are studied. The shape of the particles and the ligands used are shown to influence the luminescence properties in the visible domain. Two different emissions are observed at 440 nm (approximately 2.82 eV) and at 580 nm (approximately 2.14 eV) that are associated with the presence of surface defects on the particles. The first emission corresponds to the well-known yellow emission located at 580 nm (approximately 2.14 eV) with a lifetime of 1850 ns for 4.0 nm size ZnO nanoparticles. The second emission at 440 nm (approximately 2.82 eV) is observed when amine functions are present. This strong blue emission is associated with an excitation energy less than that associated with the yellow emission displaying a lifetime of nine nanoseconds. A possible hole trapping effect by the amine groups on the surface of the ZnO particles is discussed as the origin of this emission. The modification of the intensities between the two visible emissions for different particle shapes is proposed to be related to a specific location of the amine ligands on the surface of the particles.