Rapid radiation of ant parasitic butterflies during the Miocene aridification of Africa.

Africa has undergone a progressive aridification during the last 20 My that presumably impacted organisms and fostered the evolution of life history adaptations. We test the hypothesis that shift to living in ant nests and feeding on ant brood by larvae of phyto-predaceous Lepidochrysops butterflies was an adaptive response to the aridification of Africa that facilitated the subsequent radiation of butterflies in this genus. Using anchored hybrid enrichment we constructed a time-calibrated phylogeny for Lepidochrysops and its closest, non-parasitic relatives in the Euchrysops section (Poloyommatini). We estimated ancestral areas across the phylogeny with process-based biogeographical models and diversification rates relying on time-variable and clade-heterogeneous birth-death models. The Euchrysops section originated with the emerging Miombo woodlands about 22 million years ago (Mya) and spread to drier biomes as they became available in the late Miocene. The diversification of the non-parasitic lineages decreased as aridification intensified around 10 Mya, culminating in diversity decline. In contrast, the diversification of the phyto-predaceous Lepidochrysops lineage proceeded rapidly from about 6.5 Mya when this unusual life history likely first evolved. The Miombo woodlands were the cradle for diversification of the Euchrysops section, and our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that aridification during the Miocene selected for a phyto-predaceous life history in species of Lepidochrysops, with ant nests likely providing caterpillars a safe refuge from fire and a source of food when vegetation was scarce.

Notes on a small collection of Prioninae from North-East Madagascar with the description of a new Schizodontus/ Quentin amp; Villiers, 1974 (Cerambycidae, Closterini).

We present observations from a small collection of longhorns belonging to the subfamily Prioninae and collected during an expedition in the rainy season to a newly designated protected area, Mahimborondro, in North-East Madagascar. The material includes a new species (S. mahimborondroensis sp. nov.) of Closterini (Prioninae) from a small genus with only two described species (Schizodontus angustus Quentin Villiers, 1974 and S. latus Quentin Villiers, 1974). An identification key to the three species is included.

Notes on the genus Sarmydus Pascoe, 1867 (Cerambycidae: Prioninae: Anacolini) from India with description of a new species.

A new species of Sarmydus Pascoe, 1867, S. bagh sp. nov., is described from north India and adjacent countries based on the habitus of both male and female, and male genitalia characters. Detailed taxonomic investigations reveal previous misidentification of several specimens from India of the new species as S. antennatus Pascoe, 1867. Accordingly, Sarmydus antennatus Pascoe, 1867 is removed from the Indian fauna. Photographs of the holotype of S. antennatus are provided, and the characters of this species discussed in detail. DNA barcoding analysis of the Himalayan Sarmydus species has been done for the confirmation of the new species. This analysis depicts significant genetic divergences of >14% between S. bagh sp. nov. and its congeners, thus, sufficiently supporting morphological interpretations.

Ant-lepidopteran associations along African forest edges.

Working along forest edges, we aimed to determine how some caterpillars can co-exist with territorially dominant arboreal ants (TDAAs) in tropical Africa. We recorded caterpillars from 22 lepidopteran species living in the presence of five TDAA species. Among the defoliator and/or nectarivorous caterpillars that live on tree foliage, the Pyralidae and Nymphalidae use their silk to protect themselves from ant attacks. The Notodontidae and lycaenid Polyommatinae and Theclinae live in direct contact with ants; the Theclinae even reward ants with abundant secretions from their Newcomer gland. Lichen feeders (lycaenid; Poritiinae), protected by long bristles, also live among ants. Some lycaenid Miletinae caterpillars feed on ant-attended membracids, including in the shelters where the ants attend them; Lachnocnema caterpillars use their forelegs to obtain trophallaxis from their host ants. Caterpillars from other species live inside weaver ant nests. Those of the genus Euliphyra (Miletinae) feed on ant prey and brood and can obtain trophallaxis, while those from an Eberidae species only prey on host ant eggs. Eublemma albifascia (Erebidae) caterpillars use their thoracic legs to obtain trophallaxis and trophic eggs from ants. Through transfer bioassays of last instars, we noted that herbivorous caterpillars living in contact with ants were always accepted by alien conspecific ants; this is likely due to an intrinsic appeasing odor. Yet, caterpillars living in ant shelters or ant nests probably acquire cues from their host colonies because they were considered aliens and killed. We conclude that co-evolution with ants occurred similarly in the Heterocera and Rhopalocera.