Prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms and resiliency among African American women in a community-based primary health care center.

The purpose of this cross-sectional pilot study was to determine the prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms and resiliency among 290 African American women (AAW) in a community-based primary health care center. Descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation, and logistic regression analyses were conducted. Findings indicate that depressive symptoms are experienced by 49% of the participants, while 10% indicated a history of suicidal ideation. Participants had moderately high resiliency scores that had a statistically significant inverse relationship with depressive symptoms. This suggests that resiliency is potentially a protective factor for depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were positively correlated with participants' diagnosis of at least one chronic disease. The strongest predictors of depressive symptoms were previous diagnoses of a mental health condition and unemployment. This study identifies risk and potential protective factors for depression among a clinic sample of AAW.

Characterizing depression and comorbid medical conditions in African American women in a primary care setting.

BACKGROUND: African American women are more likely to seek treatment for depression in primary care settings; however, few women receive guideline-concordant depression treatment in these settings. This investigation focused on the impact of depression on overall functioning in African American women in a primary care setting. METHODS: Data was collected from a sample of 507 African American women in the waiting room of an urban primary care setting. The majority of women were well-educated, insured, and employed. The CESD-R was used to screen for depression, and participants completed the 36-Item Short-Form Survey to determine functional status. RESULTS: Among the participants with depression, there was greater functional impairment for role-physical (z = -0.88, 95% CI = -1.13, -0.64) when compared to individuals with diabetes and hypertension. Individuals with depression also had greater role-emotional impairment (z = -1.12, 95% CI = -1.37, -0.87) than individuals with diabetes and hypertension. African American women with comorbid hypertension and depression had greater functional impairment in role-physical when compared to African American women with hypertension and no depression (t(124) = -4.22, p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: African American women with depression are more likely to present with greater functional impairment in role function when compared to African American women with diabetes or hypertension. Because African American women often present to primary care settings for treatment of mental illness, primary care providers need to have a clear understanding of the population, as well as the most effective and appropriate interventions.

Principal components of heritability from neurocognitive domains differ between families with schizophrenia and control subjects.

OBJECTIVE: Various measures of neurocognitive function show mean differences among individuals with schizophrenia (SZ), their relatives, and population controls. We use eigenvector transformations that maximize heritability of multiple neurocognitive measures, namely principal components of heritability (PCH), and evaluate how they distribute in SZ families and controls. METHODS: African-Americans with SZ or schizoaffective disorder (SZA) (n = 514), their relatives (n = 1092), and adult controls (n = 300) completed diagnostic interviews and computerized neurocognitive tests. PCH were estimated from 9 neurocognitive domains. Three PCH, PCH1-PCH3, were modeled to determine if status (SZ, relative, and control), other psychiatric covariates, and education were significant predictors of mean values. A small-scale linkage analysis was also conducted in a subset of the sample. RESULTS: PCH1, PCH2, and PCH3 account for 72% of the genetic variance. PCH1 represents 8 of 9 neurocognitive domains, is most highly correlated with spatial processing and emotion recognition, and has unadjusted heritability of 68%. The means for PCH1 differ significantly among SZ, their relatives, and controls. PCH2, orthogonal to PCH1, is most closely correlated with working memory and has an unadjusted heritability of 45%. Mean PCH2 is different only between SZ families and controls. PCH3 apparently represents a heritable component of neurocognition similar across the 3 diagnostic groups. No significant linkage evidence to PCH1-PCH3 or individual neurocognitive measures was discovered. CONCLUSIONS: PCH1 is highly heritable and genetically correlated with SZ. It should prove useful in future genetic analyses. Mean PCH2 differentiates SZ families and controls but not SZ and unaffected family members.

Evaluation of HLA polymorphisms in relation to schizophrenia risk and infectious exposure.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) implicate single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on chromosome 6p21.3-22.1, the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region, as common risk factors for schizophrenia (SZ). Other studies implicate viral and protozoan exposure. Our study tests chromosome 6p SNPs for effects on SZ risk with and without exposure. METHOD: GWAS-significant SNPs and ancestry-informative marker SNPs were analyzed among African American patients with SZ (n = 604) and controls (n = 404). Exposure to herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Toxoplasma gondii (TOX) was assayed using specific antibody assays. RESULTS: Five SNPs were nominally associated with SZ, adjusted for population admixture (P < .05, uncorrected for multiple comparisons). These SNPs were next analyzed in relation to infectious exposure. Multivariate analysis indicated significant association between rs3130297 genotype and HSV-1 exposure; the associated allele was different from the SZ risk allele. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a model for the genesis of SZ incorporating genomic variation in the HLA region and neurotropic viral exposure for testing in additional, independent African American samples.

In silico and in vitro identification of microRNAs that regulate hepatic nuclear factor 4α expression.

Hepatic nuclear factor 4α (HNF4A) is a nuclear transcription factor that regulates the expression of many genes involved in drug disposition. To identify additional molecular mechanisms that regulate HNF4A, we identified microRNAs (miRNAs) that target HNF4A expression. In silico analyses suggested that HNF4A is targeted by many miRNAs. We conducted in vitro studies to validate several of these predictions. With use of an HNF4A 3'-untranslated region (UTR) luciferase reporter assay, five of six miRNAs tested significantly down-regulated (∼20-40%) the luciferase activity. In HepG2 cells, miR-34a and miR-449a also down-regulated the expression of both the HNF4A protein and an HNF4A target gene, PXR (∼30-40%). This regulation appeared without reduction in HNF4A mRNA expression, suggesting that they must be blocking HNF4A translation. Using additional bioinformatic algorithms, we identified polymorphisms that are predicted to alter the miRNA targeting of HNF4A. Luciferase assays indicated that miR-34a and miR-449a were less effective in regulating a variant (rs11574744) than the wild-type HNF4A 3'-UTR. In vivo, subjects with the variant HNF4A had lower CYP2D6 enzyme activity, although this result was not statistically significant (p = 0.16). In conclusion, our findings demonstrate strong evidence for a role of miRNAs in the regulation of HNF4A.

Psychosocial and sociocultural correlates of depressive symptoms among diverse African American women.

African American women are faced with many challenges regarding their historical, cultural, and social structural position in the United States that may heighten their vulnerability for depression, one of the most prevalent disorders that can engender poor functionality. The purpose of this cross-sectional pilot study was to foster greater understanding about the occurrence and correlates of depressive symptoms among a diverse convenience sample of 63 African American women recruited from a comprehensive primary health care clinic (n = 23), a small private academic institution (n = 25), and an urban community setting (n = 15). Self-report data concerning selected psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors were collected. Descriptive statistics, Pearson product moment correlation, and analysis of variance were used to analyze data. Results indicated several similarities and differences among the 3 groups of women concerning levels of depressive symptoms and their correlates. Among the total sample, symptoms of depression were mild among 65% of the women. Depressive symptoms were significant and positively associated with negative and ruminative thinking (r = 0.79, p < .01), low self-esteem (r = 0.58, p < .01), stressful life events (r = 0.43, p < .05), low social support (r = 0.46, p <.01), depression stigma (r = 0.36, p < 01), and indication of chronic diseases (r = 0.34, p < .01). Depressive symptoms were significant and negatively associated with resiliency (r = -0.48, p < .01) and spiritual well-being (r = -.47, p < .01). This research adds to the empirical data concerning contributors to depressive symptoms for African American women.

Project among African-Americans to explore risks for schizophrenia (PAARTNERS): evidence for impairment and heritability of neurocognitive functioning in families of schizophrenia patients.

OBJECTIVE: Neurocognitive impairments in schizophrenia are well replicated and widely regarded as candidate endophenotypes that may facilitate understanding of schizophrenia genetics and pathophysiology. The Project Among African-Americans to Explore Risks for Schizophrenia (PAARTNERS) aims to identify genes underlying liability to schizophrenia. The unprecedented size of its study group (N=1,872), made possible through use of a computerized neurocognitive battery, can help further investigation of the genetics of neurocognition. The current analysis evaluated two characteristics not fully addressed in prior research: 1) heritability of neurocognition in African American families and 2) relationship between neurocognition and psychopathology in families of African American probands with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. METHOD: Across eight data collection sites, patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (N=610), their biological relatives (N=928), and community comparison subjects (N=334) completed a standardized diagnostic evaluation and the computerized neurocognitive battery. Performance accuracy and response time (speed) were measured separately for 10 neurocognitive domains. RESULTS: The patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder exhibited less accuracy and speed in most neurocognitive domains than their relatives both with and without other psychiatric disorders, who in turn were more impaired than comparison subjects in most domains. Estimated trait heritability after inclusion of the mean effect of diagnostic status, age, and sex revealed significant heritabilities for most neurocognitive domains, with the highest for accuracy of abstraction/flexibility, verbal memory, face memory, spatial processing, and emotion processing and for speed of attention. CONCLUSION: Neurocognitive functions in African American families are heritable and associated with schizophrenia. They show potential for gene-mapping studies.

Convergent patterns of association between phenylalanine hydroxylase variants and schizophrenia in four independent samples.

Recessive mutations in the phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene predispose to phenylketonuria (PKU) in conjunction with dietary exposure to phenylalanine. Previous studies have suggested PAH variations could confer risk for schizophrenia, but comprehensive follow-up has not been reported. We analyzed 15 common PAH "tag" SNPs and three exonic variations that are rare in Caucasians but common in African-Americans among four independent samples (total n = 5,414). The samples included two US Caucasian cohorts (260 trios, 230 independent cases, 474 controls), Bulgarian families (659 trios), and an African-American sample (464 families, 401 controls). Analyses of both US Caucasian samples revealed associations with five SNPs; most notably the common allele (G) of rs1522305 from case-control analyses (z = 2.99, P = 0.006). This SNP was independently replicated in the Bulgarian cohort (z = 2.39, P = 0.015). A non-significant trend was also observed among African-American families (z = 1.39, P = 0.165), and combined analyses of all four samples were significant (rs1522305: chi(2) = 23.28, 8 d.f., P = 0.003). Results for rs1522305 met our a priori criteria for statistical significance, namely an association that was robust to multiple testing correction in one sample, a replicated risk allele in multiple samples, and combined analyses that were nominally significant. Case-control results in African-Americans detected an association with L321L (P = 0.047, OR = 1.46). Our analyses suggest several associations at PAH, with consistent evidence for rs1522305. Further analyses, including additional variations and environmental influences such as phenylalanine exposure are warranted.

Project among African-Americans to explore risks for schizophrenia (PAARTNERS): recruitment and assessment methods.

The Project among African-Americans to Explore Risks for Schizophrenia (PAARTNERS) is a multi-site, NIMH-funded study that seeks to identify genetic polymorphisms that confer susceptibility to schizophrenia among African-Americans by linkage mapping and targeted association analyses. Because deficits in certain dimensions of cognitive ability are thought to underlie liability to schizophrenia, the project also examines cognitive abilities in individuals affected by schizophrenia and their extended family members. This article describes PAARTNERS study design, ascertainment methods and preliminary sample characteristics. We aim to recruit a sample of 1260 African-American families, all of whom have at least one proband with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. The data collection protocol includes a structured Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies, Family Interview for Genetic Studies, focused neurocognitive assessment, medical records review, and the collection of blood or buccal cells for genetic analyses. We have currently completed study procedures for 106 affected sib-pair, 457 case-parent trio and 23 multiplex families. A total of 289 probands have completed the best estimate final diagnosis process and 1153 probands and family members have been administered the computerized neuropsychological battery. This project lays the foundation for future analysis of cognitive and behavioral endophenotypes. This novel integration of diagnostic, neurocognitive and genetic data will also generate valuable information for future phenotypic and genetic studies of schizophrenia.

CYP2D6*36 gene arrangements within the cyp2d6 locus: association of CYP2D6*36 with poor metabolizer status.

Unexplained cases of CYP2D6 genotype/phenotype discordance continue to be discovered. In previous studies, several African Americans with a poor metabolizer phenotype carried the reduced function CYP2D6*10 allele in combination with a nonfunctional allele. We pursued the possibility that these alleles harbor either a known sequence variation (i.e., CYP2D6*36 carrying a gene conversion in exon 9 along the CYP2D6*10-defining 100C>T single-nucleotide polymorphism) or novel sequences variation(s). Discordant cases were evaluated by long-range polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to test for gene rearrangement events, and a 6.6-kilobase pair PCR product encompassing the CYP2D6 gene was cloned and entirely sequenced. Thereafter, allele frequencies were determined in different study populations comprising whites, African Americans, and Asians. Analyses covering the CYP2D7 to 2D6 gene region established that CYP2D6*36 did not only exist as a gene duplication (CYP2D6*36x2) or in tandem with *10 (CYP2D6*36+*10), as previously reported, but also by itself. This "single" CYP2D6*36 allele was found in nine African Americans and one Asian, but was absent in the whites tested. Ultimately, the presence of CYP2D6*36 resolved genotype/phenotype discordance in three cases. We also discovered an exon 9 conversion-positive CYP2D6*4 gene in a duplication arrangement (CYP2D6*4Nx2) and a CYP2D6*4 allele lacking 100C>T (CYP2D6*4M) in two white subjects. The discovery of an allele that carries only one CYP2D6*36 gene copy provides unequivocal evidence that both CYP2D6*36 and *36x2 are associated with a poor metabolizer phenotype. Given a combined frequency of between 0.5 and 3% in African Americans and Asians, genotyping for CYP2D6*36 should improve the accuracy of genotype-based phenotype prediction in these populations.

Identification and characterization of novel sequence variations in the cytochrome P4502D6 (CYP2D6) gene in African Americans.

Cytochrome P4502D6 (CYP2D6) genotyping reliably predicts poor metabolizer phenotype in Caucasians, but is less accurate in African Americans. To evaluate discordance we have observed in phenotype to genotype correlation studies, select African American subjects were chosen for complete resequencing of the CYP2D6 gene including 4.2 kb of the CYP2D7-2D6 intergenic region. Comparisons were made to a CYP2D6(*)1 reference sequence revealing novel SNPs in the upstream, coding and intervening sequences. These sequence variations, defining four functional alleles (CYP2D6(*)41B, (*)45A and B and (*)46), were characterized for their ability to influence splice site strength, transcription level or catalytic protein activity. Furthermore, their frequency was determined in a population of 251 African Americans. A -692(TGTG) deletion (CYP2D6(*)45B) did not significantly decrease gene expression, nor could any other upstream SNP explain a genotype-discordant case. CYP2D6(*)45 and (*)46 have a combined frequency of 4% and can be identified by a common SNP. Carriers are predicted to exhibit an extensive or intermediate CYP2D6 phenotype.

Unique CYP2D6 activity distribution and genotype-phenotype discordance in black Americans.

BACKGROUND: Although CYP2D6 has been studied extensively in different population groups, relatively little is known for black Americans. METHODS: CYP2D6 activity was assessed with dextromethorphan in 283 black American subjects and correlated with their genotype (2D6*2 to *12, 2D6*14, 2D6*15, 2D6*17, 2D6*18, and 2D6*29 and gene duplications). Volunteers provided information about ethnicity and concurrent medication, and they participated in either phenotyping (n = 225), genotyping (n = 251), or both (n = 193). RESULTS: The median urinary dextromethorphan/dextrorphan metabolic ratio (MR) indicated significantly lower CYP2D6 activity in the black American group (0.016) than in a white control population (0.0044; P =.0001) studied previously. The reduced function allele 2D6*17 was more common (frequency [f] = 0.395) among intermediate metabolizers (0.03 < or = MR < or= 0.3) than extensive metabolizers (MR < or = 0.03; f = 0.148; P =.0001). Consistent with reduced function toward dextromethorphan of COS cell-expressed 2D6.29 protein, 2D6*29 also was more frequent in intermediate metabolizers (f = 0.114) than in extensive metabolizers (f = 0.057; P = NS). Frequencies for 2D6*17 and 2D6*29 were f = 0.213 and 0.072, respectively. Of the 193 genotyped and phenotyped subjects, 14 were determined to be poor metabolizers, with dextromethorphan/dextrorphan ratios >0.3 (7.25%), but only 2 subjects (1.04%) carried 2 nonfunctional alleles (2D6*3/*4x2 and 2D6*4/*4). A new allelic variant, 2D6*40, was subsequently found in 2 discordant subjects (2D6*4/*40 and 2D6*6/*40), implying that the 18-base pair (bp) insertion found in 2D6*40 renders it nonfunctional. The frequency of 2D6*40 was 0.006. For genotypes that contain 2D6*2, median MR values were consistently higher in black Americans than in white subjects, indicating that other unidentified factors also contribute to lower CYP2D6 activity in black Americans. CONCLUSIONS: The lower CYP2D6 activity observed in a black American population is in part attributable to the presence of variant alleles that occur at a higher frequency in this population than in white subjects. Additional studies are required to ascertain the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic consequences of these pharmacogenetic data in black Americans.

CYP2D6 allele frequency in European Caucasians, Asians, Africans and their descendants.

Over 40 cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 allelic variants have been discovered thus far. The alleles may be classified on the basis of the level of activity for which they encode CYP2D6 enzymes, into functional, non-functional and reduced function groups. CYP2D6 allele frequency is known to vary amongst racial/ethnic groups. Generally, for European Caucasians and their descendants, the functional group of alleles are predominant, with a frequency of 71%. Non-functional alleles represent 26% of the variability, mainly CYP2D6*4. In Asians and their close descendants, functional alleles represent only ~ 50% of the frequency of CYP2D6 alleles. Asians and Pacific Islanders have a high frequency (median = 41%) of a reduced function allele, CYP2D6*10, contributing to the population shift to the right of metabolic rates indicating slower metabolism. Information concerning Amerindians from North (Canada), Central and South America indicate comparatively low frequencies of CYP2D6*10, perhaps a "founders" effect. The frequency of functional alleles in Africans and African Americans is also about 50%. Both Africans and African Americans have reduced function alleles representing 35% of allele variation, mainly CYP2D6*17. African Americans, however, have more than twice the median frequency of nonfunctional alleles compared with Africans (14.5% vs 6.3%). Non-functional and reduced function alleles represent about 50% of allele frequency in Black populations but a much greater variety than carried in Asians. Since alleles which encode for no or reduced functioning clearly affect metabolic activity of drugs mediated by CYP2D6, studies are needed in populations in which these alleles play a major role in order to assure optimal dosing recommendations are based on empirical pharmacogenetics.

Polymorphism of CYP2D6 in Black populations: implications for psychopharmacology.

Drug-metabolizing enzymes found primarily in the liver (CYP450) are a major determinant of therapeutic drug response. Polymorphism dependent upon race/ethnic origin for CYP2D6 is now well-established. Despite consistent reports of ethnic differences in pharmacologic response to antidepressants and neuroleptics, there is a paucity of data on controlled clinical trials and studies determining polymorphic characteristics of CYP2D6 enzymes in African-Americans. There is little and conflicting information available on black populations (Africans, bushmen, Australian Aborigines or African Americans). The prevalence of poor metabolizers in Black populations has been estimated from 0 to 19%, compared with consistent reports of poor metabolizer status in Caucasians (5-10%) and Asians (0-2%). Within the extensive metabolizer category, Asians have higher metabolic ratios (that is, slower metabolism) than Caucasian extensive metabolizers. A high frequency of a mutant gene, CYP2D6*10 has been associated with the slower metabolic rate in Asians. Previous research suggests that slower metabolic rates compared with Caucasians may also be characteristic of Black populations. Recent reports suggest that a novel gene mutant in Black populations, CYP2D6*17, associated with a slower metabolic rate, may occur in a high frequency in these populations. Common clinical practice, supported by controlled clinical studies in Asians, have led to a reduction in dosage recommendations for many antidepressants and neuroleptics for this ethnic group. It is imperative that the determinants of bioavailability be established in African-Americans in order to establish rational drug therapy guidelines for this population.