Exploring Changes in Musical Behaviors of Caregivers and Children in Social Distancing During the COVID-19 Outbreak.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had profound effects on all aspects of society. Families were among those directly impacted by the first measures imposed by health authorities worldwide to contain the spread of the Sars-CoV-2 virus, where social distancing and mandatory quarantine were the main approaches implemented. Notably, little is yet known about how social distancing during COVID-19 has altered families' daily routines, particularly regarding music-related behaviors. The aim of this study was 2-fold: (i) to explore changes in families' daily routine and caregivers' levels of well-being and stress during the COVID-19 outbreak in Brazil and (ii) to investigate whether musical behaviors of caregivers and the children under their care (aged from 3 to 6 years old) changed during social distancing. One hundred and eighty-eight caregivers residing in Brazil participated in an online cross-sectional study conducted between July and August 2020. Our findings suggest significant changes in families' dynamics during the COVID-19 outbreak, with parents (especially mothers) spending more time on childcare and a substantial decrease in caregiver's well-being. Regarding music-related behaviors, our results revealed considerable changes in caregivers' and children's musical activities at home during social distancing, including an increase in child-only musical behaviors and shared caregiver-child activities. Moreover, sociodemographic factors such as caregiver background and well-being as well as the child's disability status significantly influenced musical engagement at home during social distancing. This study captured some features of the home musical environment of middle-class families in Brazil in the first stages of social distancing restrictions during the pandemic and caregivers' role in providing an environment where musical experiences are nurtured. Further research is needed to better understand aspects such as the long-term impact of the changes of musical behaviors at home on musical parenting and families' well-being.

The effect of perceptual-motor continuity compatibility on the temporal control of continuous and discontinuous self-paced rhythmic movements.

One of the questions yet to be fully understood is to what extent the properties of the sensory and the movement information interact to facilitate sensorimotor integration. In this study, we examined the relative contribution of the continuity compatibility between motor goals and their sensory outcomes in timing variability. The variability of inter-response intervals was measured in a synchronization-continuation paradigm. Participants performed two repetitive movement tasks whereby they drew circles either using continuous or discontinuous self-paced movements while receiving discrete or continuous auditory feedback. The results demonstrated that the effect of perceptual-motor continuity compatibility may be limited in self-paced auditory-motor synchronization as timing variability was not significantly influenced by the continuity of the feedback or the continuity compatibility between feedback and the movement produced. In addition, results suggested that the presence of salient perceptual events marking the completion of the time intervals elicited a common timing process in both continuous and discontinuous circle drawing, regardless of the continuity of the auditory feedback. These findings open a new line of investigation into the role of the discriminability and reliability of the event-based information in determining the nature of the timing mechanisms engaged in continuous and discontinuous self-paced rhythmic movements.

Rhythm and Music-Based Interventions in Motor Rehabilitation: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives.

Research in basic and clinical neuroscience of music conducted over the past decades has begun to uncover music's high potential as a tool for rehabilitation. Advances in our understanding of how music engages parallel brain networks underpinning sensory and motor processes, arousal, reward, and affective regulation, have laid a sound neuroscientific foundation for the development of theory-driven music interventions that have been systematically tested in clinical settings. Of particular significance in the context of motor rehabilitation is the notion that musical rhythms can entrain movement patterns in patients with movement-related disorders, serving as a continuous time reference that can help regulate movement timing and pace. To date, a significant number of clinical and experimental studies have tested the application of rhythm- and music-based interventions to improve motor functions following central nervous injury and/or degeneration. The goal of this review is to appraise the current state of knowledge on the effectiveness of music and rhythm to modulate movement spatiotemporal patterns and restore motor function. By organizing and providing a critical appraisal of a large body of research, we hope to provide a revised framework for future research on the effectiveness of rhythm- and music-based interventions to restore and (re)train motor function.

Development and evaluation of a novel music-based therapeutic device for upper extremity movement training: A pre-clinical, single-arm trial.

Restoration of upper limb motor function and patient functional independence are crucial treatment targets in neurological rehabilitation. Growing evidence indicates that music-based intervention is a promising therapeutic approach for the restoration of upper extremity functional abilities in neurologic conditions such as cerebral palsy, stroke, and Parkinson's Disease. In this context, music technology may be particularly useful to increase the availability and accessibility of music-based therapy and assist therapists in the implementation and assessment of targeted therapeutic goals. In the present study, we conducted a pre-clinical, single-arm trial to evaluate a novel music-based therapeutic device (SONATA) for upper limb extremity movement training. The device consists of a graphical user interface generated by a single-board computer displayed on a 32" touchscreen with built-in speakers controlled wirelessly by a computer tablet. The system includes two operational modes that allow users to play musical melodies on a virtual keyboard or draw figures/shapes whereby every action input results in controllable sensory feedback. Four motor tasks involving hand/finger movement were performed with 21 healthy individuals (13 males, aged 26.4 ± 3.5 years) to evaluate the device's operational modes and main features. The results of the functional tests suggest that the device is a reliable system to present pre-defined sequences of audiovisual stimuli and shapes and to record response and movement data. This preliminary study also suggests that the device is feasible and adequate for use with healthy individuals. These findings open new avenues for future clinical research to further investigate the feasibility and usability of the SONATA as a tool for upper extremity motor function training in neurological rehabilitation. Directions for future clinical research are discussed.

A Pilot Study Investigating the Effect of Music-Based Intervention on Depression and Anhedonia.

This study investigated the effect of a music-based intervention on depression and associated symptoms. Twenty individuals formally diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder and in a current Major Depressive Episode (11 females and 8 males; aged between 26 and 65 years) undertook a 5 weeks intervention consisting of music listening combined with rhythmic sensory stimulation. Participants listened to a set of designed instrumental music tracks embedded with low-frequency sounds (30-70 Hz). The stimuli were delivered for 30 min, 5 times per week, using a portable consumer device with built-in stereo speakers and a low-frequency transducer, which allowed the low-frequency sounds embedded in the music to be experienced as a mild vibrotactile sensation around the lower back. Changes from baseline to post-intervention in measures of depression symptoms, sleep quality, quality of life, anhedonia, and music-reward processing were assessed with clinician-based assessments as well as self-reports and a monetary incentive behavioral task. The study results indicated that there were significant changes from baseline in measures of depression and associated symptoms, including sleep quality, quality of life, and anhedonia. However, individual differences in treatment response need to be considered. These findings corroborate previous evidence that music-based intervention, when added to standard care, is a promising adjunctive treatment for Major Depressive Disorder, and open new avenues to investigate the effect of music-based therapy to ameliorate anhedonia-specific dysfunction in major depressive disorder and other neuropsychiatric disorders.

A parallel randomized controlled trial examining the effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation on fibromyalgia symptoms.

This double-blind, two-arm parallel randomized controlled trial investigated the effects of gamma-frequency rhythmic sensory stimulation on fibromyalgia. We were interested in whether rhythmic sensory stimulation would promote significant changes in fibromyalgia and associated symptoms, and whether treatment effects would differ between two distinct treatment parameters. Fifty patients with a formal diagnosis of fibromyalgia were randomly assigned to two test groups. One group received vibrotactile stimulation from a continuous sine wave single-frequency stimulation (40 Hz) for 30 minutes, five days per week, over five weeks, concomitant with usual care. The second group completed the same treatment protocol but received a different stimulation, consisting of random and intermittent complex wave gamma-range vibrotactile stimulation. Fibromyalgia symptoms, pain severity and interference, depression symptoms, quality of life and sleep quality were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Results indicated that there were statistically significant changes from baseline to post-treatment in measures of fibromyalgia symptom severity, pain interference, depression, and sleep quality. However, treatment outcomes did not differ significantly between groups. These findings provide preliminary evidence that gamma-frequency rhythmic vibroacoustic stimulation may decrease fibromyalgia symptoms and ease associated comorbidities, opening new avenues for further investigation of the effects of rhythmic sensory stimulation on chronic pain conditions.

Rhythmic priming across effector systems: A randomized controlled trial with Parkinson's disease patients.

This study investigated the immediate effects of auditory-motor entrainment across effector systems by examining whether Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation training of arm or finger movements would modulate gait speed. Forty-one participants with idiopathic Parkinson's Disease were randomly assigned to 3 groups. Participants in the finger-tapping group tapped in synchrony with a metronome set to 20% faster pace than the pre-training walking cadence, whereas participants in the other group were asked to swing both arms in an alternating motion in synchrony with the metronome. Participants in the control condition did not receive training. To assess gait parameters pre- and post-training, participants walked on a 14-meter flat walkway at his/her preferred walking cadence with no auditory cueing. Results indicated that there was a significant increase in gait velocity after the finger tapping training (p < .005), whereas no differences were observed in the arm swing (p = .802) and in the control conditions (p = .525). Similarly, there were significant changes in gait cadence post-training in the finger tapping group (p < .005), but not after arm swing training (p = .879) or control (p = .759). There were no significant changes in stride length post-training in none of the groups. These findings suggest that auditory-motor entrainment in one effector system may prime a second effector system. Interestingly, however, the priming effect on gait was only observed in the finger tapping condition and not with synchronized arm swing movements. These findings have significant implications for motor rehabilitation and open new avenues for further investigation of the mechanisms underlying cross-effector coupling.

fNIRS Responses in Professional Violinists While Playing Duets: Evidence for Distinct Leader and Follower Roles at the Brain Level.

Music played in ensembles is a naturalistic model to study joint action and leader-follower relationships. Recently, the investigation of the brain underpinnings of joint musical actions has gained attention; however, the cerebral correlates underlying the roles of leader and follower in music performance remain elusive. The present study addressed this question by simultaneously measuring the hemodynamic correlates of functional neural activity elicited during naturalistic violin duet performance using fNIRS. Findings revealed distinct patterns of functional brain activation when musicians played the Violin 2 (follower) than the Violin 1 part (leader) in duets, both compared to solo performance. More specifically, results indicated that musicians playing the Violin 2 part had greater oxy-Hb activation in temporo-parietal (p = 0.02) and somatomotor (p = 0.04) regions during the duo condition in relation to the solo. On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the activation of these areas between duo/solo conditions during the execution of the Violin 1 part (p's > 0.05). These findings suggest that ensemble cohesion during a musical performance may impose particular demands when musicians play the follower position, especially in brain areas associated with the processing of dynamic social information and motor simulation. This study is the first to use fNIRS hyperscanning technology to simultaneously measure the brain activity of two musicians during naturalistic music ensemble performance, opening new avenues for the investigation of brain correlates underlying joint musical actions with multiple subjects in a naturalistic environment.

Rhythmic auditory stimulation for reduction of falls in Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled study.

OBJECTIVE:: To test whether rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) training reduces the number of falls in Parkinson's disease patients with a history of frequent falls. DESIGN:: Randomized withdrawal study design. SUBJECTS:: A total of 60 participants (aged 62-82 years) diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (Hoehn and Yahr stages III or IV) with at least two falls in the past 12 months. INTERVENTION:: Participants were randomly allocated to two groups and completed 30 minutes of daily home-based gait training with metronome click-embedded music. The experimental group completed 24 weeks of RAS training, whereas the control group discontinued RAS training between weeks 8 and 16. MAIN MEASURES:: Changes in clinical and kinematic parameters were assessed at baseline, weeks 8, 16, and 24. RESULTS:: Both groups improved significantly at week 8. At week 16-after the control group had discontinued training-significant differences between groups emerged including a rise in the fall index for the control group ( M = 10, SD = 6). Resumption of training reduced the number of falls so that group differences were no longer significant at week 24 ( Mexperimental = 3, SD = 2.6; Mcontrol = 5, SD = 4.4; P > 0.05). Bilateral ankle dorsiflexion was significantly correlated with changes in gait, fear of falling, and the fall index, indicating ankle flexion as a potential kinematic mechanism RAS addresses to reduce falls. CONCLUSION:: RAS training significantly reduced the number of falls in Parkinson's disease and modified key gait parameters, such as velocity and stride length.

A developmental study of the effect of music training on timed movements.

When people clap to music, sing, play a musical instrument, or dance, they engage in temporal entrainment. We examined the effect of music training on the precision of temporal entrainment in 57 children aged 10-14 years (31 musicians, 26 non-musicians). Performance was examined for two tasks: self-paced finger tapping (discrete movements) and circle drawing (continuous movements). For each task, participants synchronized their movements with a steady pacing signal and then continued the movement at the same rate in the absence of the pacing signal. Analysis of movements during the continuation phase revealed that musicians were more accurate than non-musicians at finger tapping and, to a lesser extent, circle drawing. Performance on the finger-tapping task was positively associated with the number of years of formal music training, whereas performance on the circle-drawing task was positively associated with the age of participants. These results indicate that music training and maturation of the motor system reinforce distinct skills of timed movement.

Timing skills and expertise: discrete and continuous timed movements among musicians and athletes.

INTRODUCTION: Movement-based expertise relies on precise timing of movements and the capacity to predict the timing of events. Music performance involves discrete rhythmic actions that adhere to regular cycles of timed events, whereas many sports involve continuous movements that are not timed in a cyclical manner. It has been proposed that the precision of discrete movements relies on event timing (clock mechanism), whereas continuous movements are controlled by emergent timing. We examined whether movement-based expertise influences the timing mode adopted to maintain precise rhythmic actions. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Timing precision was evaluated in musicians, athletes and control participants. Discrete and continuous movements were assessed using finger-tapping and circle-drawing tasks, respectively, based on the synchronization-continuation paradigm. In Experiment 1, no auditory feedback was provided in the continuation phase of the trials, whereas in Experiment 2 every action triggered a feedback tone. RESULTS: Analysis of precision in the continuation phase indicated that athletes performed significantly better than musicians and controls in the circle-drawing task, whereas musicians were more precise than controls in the finger tapping task. Interestingly, musicians were also more precise than controls in the circle-drawing task. RESULTS also showed that the timing mode adopted was dependent on expertise and the presence of auditory feedback. DISCUSSION: RESULTS showed that movement-based expertise is associated with enhanced timing, but these effects depend on the nature of the training. Expertise was found to influence the timing strategy adopted to maintain precise rhythmic movements, suggesting that event and emergent timing mechanisms are not strictly tied to specific tasks, but can both be adopted to achieve precise timing.