Anglo-French neurological interactions in the 19th and early 20th centuries: Societies and Journals.

We have reviewed seminal interactions between British and French physicians prior to and following the establishment of the Paris and London Schools of Neurology from the mid-19th to the early 20th centuries. Our first article focused on British and French physicians, places and events. In this second part of our review we have examined the interactions between British and French Neurological Societies and Journals, including: (1) The Neurological Society of London founded in 1886, which became the Section of Neurology of the Royal Society of Medicine; (2) The Société de Neurologie de Paris founded in 1899, later renamed as The Société Française de Neurologie; (3) The journal Brain and its precursors and successors; (4) The journal Revue Neurologique and its precursors. We illustrate the constructive influence of Anglo-French interactions on the early development of neurology by the distinguished physicians who were corresponding members respectively of the British and French Neurological Societies and the scientific articles published by French authors in Brain and by British scientists in Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpêtrière, Archives de Neurologie and Revue Neurologique.

Anglo-French neurological interactions in the 19th and early 20th centuries: Physicians, places and events.

The development of neurology as an independent discipline in the mid-19th century was considerably influenced by the almost simultaneous foundation of the Charcot School at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris and the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic and it's School at Queen Square in London in the 1860's. We have reviewed the early interactions between Charcot's school and the leading neurologists at the National Hospital and also discussed their neurological antecedents and subsequent links up to the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914. Earlier interactions involved Trousseau and Duchenne in France and Graves, Todd, Laycock and Allbutt in Britain. The French Brown-Séquard was one of the first two physicians appointed to the National Hospital. Charcot was a frequent visitor to Britain culminating in his influential role in the 1881 International Medical Congress in London. He first suggested the terms "Parkinson's Disease" and "Jacksonian Epilepsy". He attracted numerous British visitors to Paris and his studies of hysteria were influenced by Laycock, Todd and Russell Reynolds. Hughlings Jackson drew upon the anatomical studies of Gratiolet in his interactions with Broca and Charcot which influenced French views on aphasia, epilepsy and cortical localisation. Ball, an Englishman, was the first Professor of mental and brain diseases in Paris in 1877. Bruce in Edinburgh and Kinnier Wilson in London both maintained frequent contacts with Paris, where the latter first presented his studies of hepatolenticular degeneration in 1912. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 led to further interactions with the leading role of the French and British physicians Raymond and Duckworth. Two outstanding British women, Elizabeth Garrett and Blanche Edwards, qualified in Medicine in Paris with neurological interests. Our review emphasises the constructive influence of the French and British Schools on each other and thus on the development of neurology. The French influence was primarily the establishment of the anatomo-clinical method and the use of photographic illustrations in publications. The British School influence was its Clinical Assessment Skills and scientific studies of newly recognised diseases and concepts and its early development of neurosurgery.

Feasibility of changing for a rechargeable constant current neurostimulator in Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about outcome and settings adaptations after replacement of constant-voltage non-rechargeable implantable pulse generator (CV-nrIPG) by constant-current rechargeable IPG (CC-rIPG). OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility and safety of replacing a CV-nrIPG by a CC-rIPG in Parkinson's disease (PD) and the subsequent outcome. METHODS: A prospective cohort of thirty PD patients, whose CV-nrIPG was replaced by a CC-rIPG in University Hospital of Lyon between January 2017 and December 2018 (rIPG group) and 39 PD patients, who underwent the replacement of a CV-nrIPG by the same device in 2016 (nrIPG group), were enrolled in this study. Three surgeons performed the operations. Duration of hospitalization for the replacement as well as the number of in or outpatient visits during the first 3 months after the surgery were recorded. In the rIPG group, we compared preoperative DBS settings and the theoretical amplitude estimated using Ohm's law to the amplitude used at the end of follow-up. We assessed patients' and clinicians' opinion on the patient global functioning after the replacement using Clinical Global Impression score. RESULTS: Duration of hospitalization (P=0.47) and need for additional hospitalizations (P=0.73) or consultations (P=0.71) to adapt DBS parameters did not differ between the two groups. Neurological condition (CGI score) was considered as unchanged by both patients and neurologists. Final amplitude of stimulation using CC-rIPG was not predicted by Ohm's law in most cases. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing CV-nrIPG by CC-rIPG is safe and well tolerated but require neurological expertise to set the new parameters of stimulation.

A randomized controlled double-blind study of rotigotine on neuropsychiatric symptoms in de novo PD.

Management of apathy, depression and anxiety in Parkinson's disease (PD) represents a challenge. Dopamine agonists have been suggested to be effective. This multicenter, randomized (1:1), double-blind study assessed the 6-month effect of rotigotine versus placebo on apathy, depression and anxiety in de novo PD. The primary outcome was the change of apathy, measured with the LARS. The secondary outcomes were the change in depression and anxiety, measured with BDI-2 and STAI-trait and state. Forty-eight drug-naive PD patients were included. The primary outcome was not reached, with a surprisingly high placebo effect on apathy (60%). There was no significant difference in the change of depression at 6 months between rotigotine and placebo. Trait-anxiety was significantly improved by rotigotine compared to placebo (p = 0.04). Compared to placebo, low dose rotigotine significantly improved trait anxiety, but not apathy and depression. The major placebo effect on apathy points towards the importance of a multidisciplinary and tight follow-up in the management of neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Transatlantic Crossings: Early neurological exchanges between USA and France.

Transnational exchanges have existed for centuries, with both economic and cultural effects. At the end of the 18th century, in the aftermath of the French Revolution, medical education in France underwent radical innovations, prefiguring the training system now almost universally accepted. This paper presents 19th and early 20th century neurology-related exchanges between the United States (US) and Europe, particularly, Paris, which had become a major medical center and where many US neurologists were trained. We discuss some of the intense neurology-related exchanges between the USA and Europe, notably the role of US neurology founders William Alexander Hammond, Silas Weir Mitchell, Edward Seguin as well as Mauritius-born Charles Edouard Brown-Séquard and a few others. We emphasize the mutual benefits that resulted from such exchanges. In later years, the trend reversed with many foreigners, particularly Europeans coming to improve their knowledge in the US. More recently, a shared pattern of travel and enrichment is occurring despite current threats caused by isolationism and undue stress on local identity.

Allbutt of Leeds and Duchenne de Boulogne: Newly discovered insights on Duchenne by a British neuropsychiatrist.

It is well-established that Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1875), and Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) were the founding fathers of Parisian and French neurology during the second half of the 19th century, although much more is known about Charcot than about his "master" Duchenne. In Britain, Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836-1925) was Leeds' most distinguished physician of the 19th century, eventually becoming Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge. Allbutt's 1860-1861 year of postgraduate study in Paris and his friendship with Duchenne profoundly influenced his own contributions to nervous system and mental diseases, partly in collaboration with his colleague James Crichton-Browne (1840-1938) at the nearby West Riding Lunatic Asylum in Wakefield, Yorkshire. The present report briefly recalls the careers of Duchenne and Allbutt, and also presents a unique account by Allbutt of Duchenne in action at the height of his powers, investigating and defining the previously uncharted field of neuromuscular diseases with the aid of his localized electrization techniques. This account is discussed in relation to: Duchenne's personality and pioneering neurological achievements; the origins of French neurology; and the development of Anglo-French neurological relationships during the 19th century. Interestingly, both Duchenne and Crichton-Browne separately made important and much-appreciated contributions to the third major book by Charles Darwin (1809-1882), The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872.

Optimizing the deep brain stimulation care pathway in patients with Parkinson's disease.

Management of Parkinson's disease (PD) using deep brain stimulation (DBS) requires complex care in specialized, multidisciplinary centers. A well-organized, efficient patient flow is crucial to ensure that eligible patients can quickly access DBS. Delays or inefficiencies in patient care may impact a center's ability to meet demand, creating a capacity bottleneck. Analysis of the current practices within a center may help identify areas for improvement. After external audit of the DBS workflow of the Lyon Neurological Hospital and comparison with other European centers, manageable steps were suggested to restructure the care pathway. Propositions of the audit comprised, for example: (1) directly admitting referred patients to hospital, without a prior neurological outpatient visit and (2) including the preoperative anesthesia consultation in the hospital stay 1 month before surgery, not separately. This reorganization (between 2013 and 2016) was performed without increases in hospital medical resources or costs. The time from patients' first referral to surgery was reduced (from 22 to 16 months; p = 0.033), as was the number of pre- and postoperative patient visits (11-5; p = 0.025) and the total cumulative length of in-hospital stay (20.5-17.5 nights; p = 0.02). Ultimately, the total number of PD consultations increased (346-498 per year), as did the number of DBS implants per year (32-45 patients). In this single center experience, restructuring the DBS care pathway allowed a higher number of PD patients to benefit from DBS therapy, with a shorter waiting time and without decreasing the quality of care.

Initial treatment of Parkinson's disease in 2016: The 2000 consensus conference revisited.

In 2000, a French consensus conference proposed guidelines for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). Since then, new drugs have been concocted, new studies have been published and clinicians have become aware of some drug-induced adverse effects that were little known in the past. This has led us to reconsider the recommendations published 16 years ago. Thus, the aim of the present review is to present the recent data related to the different medications and non-pharmacological approaches available for PD, with a special focus on early-stage PD. Levodopa (LD), dopamine agonists (DAs), catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors (COMT-Is), anticholinergics, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOB-Is) and amantadine have been considered, and their efficacy and safety for both motor as well as non-motor aspects are reported here. This has led to our proposal for a revised therapeutic strategy for the initiation of treatment in newly diagnosed PD patients, based on the available literature and the relative benefits/side effects balance.

C19orf12 gene mutations in patients with neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation.

A novel subtype of Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation (NBIA) recently has been described: mitochondrial membrane protein-associated neurodegeneration (MPAN), caused by mutations of c19orf12 gene. We present phenotypic data and results of screening of C19orf12 in five unrelated NBIA families. Our data led to identify novel pathogenic mutations in C19orf12.

[From tic disorders to Tourette syndrome: current data, comorbidities, and therapeutic approach in children]. / Des tics moteurs au syndrome de Gilles de la Tourette : données actuelles, comorbidités et principes de prise en charge thérapeutique chez l'enfant et l'adolescent.

Motor tics are frequently observed in children during development. Usually transient and benign, they can become chronic over time, join various morbid disorders (vocal tics, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorders) and move toward genuine Tourette syndrome. In this case, it will be necessary to prevent impacts - mainly in terms of quality of life and emotional and relational problems - using a global therapeutic strategy combining psychoeducational approaches with appropriate medication.

Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson. Wilson's disease, Queen Square and neurology.

This historical article describes the life and work of the British physician Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson (1878-1937), who was one of the world's greatest neurologists of the first half of the 20th century. Early in his career, Wilson spent one year in Paris in 1903 where he learned from Pierre-Marie at Bicêtre Hospital. He subsequently retained uninterrupted links with French neurology. He also visited in Leipzig the German anatomist Paul Flechsig. In 1904, Wilson returned to London, where he worked for the rest of his life at the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic (later the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, and today the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery) in Queen Square, and also at Kings' College Hospital. He wrote on 'the old motor system and the new', on disorders of motility and muscle tone, on the epilepsies, on aphasia, apraxia, tics, and pathologic laughing and crying, and most importantly on Wilson's disease. The other objective of our paper is to commemorate the centenary of Wilson's most important work published in 1912 in Brain, and also in Revue Neurologique, on an illness newly recognized and characterized by him entitled "Progressive lenticular degeneration, a familial nervous disease associated with liver cirrhosis". He analyzed 12 clinical cases, four of whom he followed himself, but also four cases previously published by others and a further two that he considered in retrospect had the same disease as he was describing. The pathological profile combined necrotic damage in the lenticular nuclei of the brain and hepatic cirrhosis. This major original work is summarized and discussed in the present paper. Wilson not only delineated what was later called hepato-lenticular degeneration and Wilson's disease, but also introduced for the first time the terms extrapyramidal syndrome and extrapyramidal system, stressing the role of the basal ganglia in motility. The present historical work emphasizes the special contributions made by Wilson to the study of movement disorders, including akinesia and bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease, and their relation to basal ganglia pathology.

Wilson's disease, 100 years later .

Texts published, in 1912, 100 years ago, by Sir K. Wilson on his eponymous disease in Brain, The Lancet and La Revue Neurologique highlight the relevance of his descriptions in the light of the current knowledge. Wilson's invocation of an "unknown toxin" appears today as a prophetic intuition as the presence of excess copper in the liver was mentioned for the first time a year later whereas the role of copper in this disease was not described until 1929. Progress has been made to better understand the physiology of Wilson's disease (WD). The ATP7B gene implicated in WD is located on chromosome 13 and more than 500 mutations and 100 polymorphisms have been to date identified. The phenotypic expression is highly variable, even within a family. This can partly be explained by environmental factors as nutrition. Modulator genes are also involved in the phenotypic expression of the disease. Most of symptoms observed in WD have already been described in detail by Wilson in 1912, but subsequent progress was made over the following 100 years, helping the physician diagnose WD. Hepatic and neurological symptoms are the most frequent expressions of the disease. Other extrahepatic features include renal manifestations, osteoarticular disorders, myocardial abnormalities, endocrine disturbances, realizing a multisystemic disease. The diagnosis of the disease is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, biological, radiological and genetic data and new tools (Brain MRI, relative exchangeable copper…) allow reducing delay to diagnosis. Therapeutic findings have also changed the disease prognosis. Treatment is based on the use of copper chelators to promote copper excretion from the body (D-penicillamine and Triethylenetetramine) and zinc salts to reduce copper absorption. Tetratiomolybdate appears to be a promising treatment. While significant progress has been made during this century, many physiological aspects of this disease remain unknown and require further research to find answers in the next 100 years.

[Have centers of rare neurological diseases modified practices and the care of Wilson's disease?]. / Les centres maladies rares en neurologie ont-ils changé les pratiques et la prise en charge de la maladie de Wilson?

Wilson's disease is a particularly rare disease. It is a multisystemic affection related to a genetic abnormality of copper metabolism. Drug treatment is particularly effective if administered at an early stage of the disease and continued throughout life. The French Wilson's disease center, certified for only the one disorder, is easily identifiable by everyone, professionals and patients, which has allowed a rapid increase in the number of patients followed by the center, and considerably reduced the delay between first symptoms and diagnosis. Of its numerous ongoing research projects, it is important to mention the development of a new diagnostic test that would allow the speedy introduction of treatment of both the symptomatic forms and presymptomatic familial forms. Collaborations among professionals permit multidisciplinary care and improve the follow-up of patients in terms of all their medical and social aspects. In addition, the organization of the French Wilson's disease network serves as an exemplar for the implementation of Wilson's disease networks in other European countries and the development of collaborations between Wilson's disease patients'associations across Europe. At present, the center is also working to improve the care of patients presenting with other inherited or acquired pathologies related to copper and other heavy metals.

[Imaging non motor signs in Parkinson's disease]. / Imagerie des signes non moteurs dans la maladie de Parkinson.

Parkinson's disease is mainly considered as a motor disorder defined by a motor triad. However, various non-motor manifestations may be encountered in Parkinson's disease, including hyposmia, pain, fatigue, sleep disorders, cognitive and behavioral disorders. The pathophysiology of these signs is complex, not univocal and remains poorly understood. Functional imaging techniques either by positron emission tomography, single photon emission tomography or functional magnetic resonance imaging provide an invaluable opportunity to better understand the pathophysiology of these signs. In this paper, we present a review of the recent advances provided by functional imaging in this area.

Figures and Institutions of the neurological sciences in Paris from 1800 to 1950. Part IV: Psychiatry and psychology.

We present a short historical review on the major institutions and figures who contributed to make Paris a renowned centre of physiology and neurology during the XIXth and the first half of the XXth century. We purposely chose to focus on the period 1800-1950, as 1800 corresponds to the actual beginning of neurosciences, and as 1950 marks their exponential rise. Our presentation is divided into four chapters, matching the main disciplines that have progressed and contributed most to the knowledge we have of the brain sciences: anatomy, physiology, neurology, and psychiatry-psychology. The present article is the fourth of the four parts of this review, which deals with the chapter on psychiatry and psychology. When the French Revolution occurred, only a few institutions were taking care of the mentally ill. In the Paris area, these included Maison Royale de Charenton, Les Petites Maisons, and one of the departments of larger hospitals such as Hôtel-Dieu, the Salpêtrière Hospital and Bicêtre Hospital. One of the founders of psychiatry in Paris at that time and thereafter was Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) who was the first to distinguish insane/alienated patients from misfits, beggars, and other vagabonds. During the first half of the XIXth century, his student Jean-Étienne Esquirol (1772-1840) also played a major role with his treatise on mental diseases and the 1838 law and the creation of asylums in all parts of France. Alienists were in general caregivers and learned by themselves. In contrast, at the academic level, the emerging disciplines psychiatry and neurology were very close to each other in the second half of the XIXth century, the best example being Jules Baillarger (1809-1890). The actual development of psychiatry and psychology and the foundation of psychoanalysis later in the XIXth century and in the first half of the XXth century owed much to several European doctors and scientists, particularly those from British institutions and from German-speaking universities in Central Europe. In France, important advances were once again initiated in Paris by Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) and some of his pupils who renewed the concept of hysteria and the use of hypnosis. Sainte-Anne Hospital was created in 1867. This new institution located in the southern part of Paris became (and is still) one of the most important places in France for the treatment, research and teaching of mental diseases. Thereafter started new disciplines such as clinical psychology and neuropsychology; the scientific basis of psychology and notably the psychopathology hypothesis were established. A major revolutionary step occurred in Paris in the early 1950s with the discovery of neuroleptics and the birth of psychopharmacology. Here we present the biographical sketches of the most important Parisian scientists of these disciplines from that era, Philippe Pinel, Jean-Étienne Esquirol, Théodule Armand Ribot, Pierre Janet, Henri Louis Charles Piéron, Henry Ey, Jean Delay, Henri Laborit and Henri Hécaen.

Figures and institutions of the neurological sciences in Paris from 1800 to 1950. Part III: neurology.

We present a short historical review of the major figures, their administrative functions and their works that contributed to make Paris a renowned centre of physiology and neurology during the xixth and the first half of the xxth century. We purposely chose to focus on the period 1800-1950, as 1800 corresponds to the actual beginning of neurosciences, and 1950 marks their exponential rise. Our presentation is divided into four chapters, matching the main disciplines which have progressed and contributed the most to the knowledge we have of the brain sciences: anatomy, physiology, neurology, and psychiatry-psychology. The present article is the third of four parts of this review, and deals with neurology. A special credit should be given to Jean-Martin Charcot who founded the Salpêtrière School of neurology and became one of the world's most important neurologists of the xixth century. We provide below the biographical sketches of Armand Trousseau, Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne, Jean-Martin Charcot, Alfred Vulpian, Désiré-Magloire Bourneville, Paul Richer, Henri Parinaud, Albert Pitres, Jules Joseph Dejerine, Mrs. Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke, Édouard Brissaud, Pierre Marie, Georges Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette, Joseph Babinski, André Thomas, Georges Marinesco, Achille Alexandre Souques, Georges Guillain and Charles Foix.

Figures and institutions of the neurological sciences in Paris from 1800 to 1950. Part II: Neurophysiology.

We present a short historical review of the major figures and institutions that contributed to make Paris a renowned centre of physiology and neurology during the xixth and the first half of the xxth century. We purposely chose to focus on the period 1800-1950, as 1800 corresponds to the actual beginning of experimental physiology of the nervous system - what is here referred to as "neuroscience"-and 1950 marks its exponential rise. Our presentation is divided into four chapters, matching the main disciplines which have progressed and contributed the most to the knowledge we have of the brain sciences: anatomy, physiology, neurology, and psychiatry-psychology. The present article is the second of four parts of this review which includes the chapter on neurophysiology with selected biographical sketches of François Magendie, Marie Jean-Pierre Flourens, Claude Bernard, Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, Étienne-Jules Marey, Alfred Fessard and Denise Albe-Fessard.