Development cooperation in water and sanitation: is it based on the human rights framework?

The water and sanitation sector is verifiably receiving increased attention and funding through international development cooperation. Not least because of the way that it affects incentives and institutions in partner countries, development cooperation can have either positive or negative effects on human rights though. The consolidated frameworks for the human rights to water and sanitation is becoming linked to the international community's coordinated development efforts, as evidenced notably in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. However, a review of major funders' official policies for development cooperation in the sector suggests that many only partially endorse the frameworks for the human rights to water and sanitation. An observation of development cooperation flows to the sector allows the hypothesis to be advanced that worldwide inequalities in access to these services may be reduced through a full and clear application of the human rights framework in development cooperation activities. The article presents findings of this research and explores key stakes for development cooperation in the water and sanitation sector that are relevant for their ability to either negatively or positively contribute to the realization of human rights.

El sector de agua y saneamiento ha recibido creciente atención y financiación a través de la cooperación internacional para el desarrollo. La cooperación para el desarrollo puede tener efectos tanto positivos cuanto negativos sobre los derechos humanos. El hito que consolida los derechos humanos al agua y al saneamiento están articulados a esfuerzos de cooperación para el desarrollo promovidos por la comunidad internacional, como se evidencia en la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible. Sin embargo, una revisión de las políticas oficiales de los principales financiadores del sector sugiere que muchos de ellos aprueban solo parcialmente los hitos de los derechos humanos al agua y el saneamiento. La observación de los flujos de esta cooperación para el sector permite formular la hipótesis de que las desigualdades en el acceso a estos servicios en diferentes partes del mundo pueden reducirse con la aplicación completa y clara del marco de los derechos humanos en las actividades de cooperación para el desarrollo. El artículo presenta los resultados de esta investigación y explora los desafíos de la cooperación para el desarrollo del sector de agua y aguas residuales que son relevantes para impactar tanto negativamente cuanto positivamente a los derechos humanos.

Mitochondrial Retroprocessing Promoted Functional Transfers of rpl5 to the Nucleus in Grasses.

Functional gene transfers from the mitochondrion to the nucleus are ongoing in angiosperms and have occurred repeatedly for all 15 ribosomal protein genes, but it is not clear why some of these genes are transferred more often than others nor what the balance is between DNA- and RNA-mediated transfers. Although direct insertion of mitochondrial DNA into the nucleus occurs frequently in angiosperms, case studies of functional mitochondrial gene transfer have implicated an RNA-mediated mechanism that eliminates introns and RNA editing sites, which would otherwise impede proper expression of mitochondrial genes in the nucleus. To elucidate the mechanisms that facilitate functional gene transfers and the evolutionary dynamics of the coexisting nuclear and mitochondrial gene copies that are established during these transfers, we have analyzed rpl5 genes from 90 grasses (Poaceae) and related monocots. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that rpl5 has been functionally transferred to the nucleus at least three separate times in the grass family and that at least seven species have intact and transcribed (but not necessarily functional) copies in both the mitochondrion and nucleus. In two grasses, likely functional nuclear copies of rpl5 have been subject to recent gene conversion events via secondarily transferred mitochondrial copies in what we believe are the first described cases of mitochondrial-to-nuclear gene conversion. We show that rpl5 underwent a retroprocessing event within the mitochondrial genome early in the evolution of the grass family, which we argue predisposed the gene towards successful, DNA-mediated functional transfer by generating a "pre-edited" sequence.

Development cooperation in water and sanitation: is it based on the human rights framework?

The water and sanitation sector is verifiably receiving increased attention and funding through international development cooperation. Not least because of the way that it affects incentives and institutions in partner countries, development cooperation can have either positive or negative effects on human rights though. The consolidated frameworks for the human rights to water and sanitation is becoming linked to the international community's coordinated development efforts, as evidenced notably in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. However, a review of major funders' official policies for development cooperation in the sector suggests that many only partially endorse the frameworks for the human rights to water and sanitation. An observation of development cooperation flows to the sector allows the hypothesis to be advanced that worldwide inequalities in access to these services may be reduced through a full and clear application of the human rights framework in development cooperation activities. The article presents findings of this research and explores key stakes for development cooperation in the water and sanitation sector that are relevant for their ability to either negatively or positively contribute to the realization of human rights.

O setor de água e esgotos vem recebendo crescente atenção e financiamento por meio da cooperação internacional para o desenvolvimento. Não apenas devido à forma como tal cooperação afeta incentivos e instituições nos países parceiros, esta pode trazer efeitos positivos ou negativos para os direitos humanos. O marco consolidado para os direitos humanos à água e ao esgotamento sanitário vem sendo associado aos esforços da cooperação para o desenvolvimento promovido pela comunidade internacional, como evidenciado na Agenda para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável de 2030. No entanto, uma revisão das políticas oficiais dos maiores financiadores no setor sugere que muitos deles endossam apenas parcialmente os marcos dos direitos humanos à água e aos esgotos. A observação dos fluxos dessa cooperação para o setor permite formular a hipótese de que as desigualdades no acesso a esses serviços em várias partes do mundo podem ser reduzidas com a plena e clara aplicação do marco dos direitos humanos nas atividades de cooperação para o desenvolvimento. O artigo apresenta achados dessa pesquisa e explora desafios chave para a cooperação para o desenvolvimento no setor de água e esgotos que são relevantes para impactar tanto negativamente quanto positivamente os direitos humanos.

The human right to water and sanitation: a new perspective for public policies.

The recognition of the human right to water and sanitation (HRtWS) by the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council in 2010 constituted a significant political measure whose direct consequences are still being assessed. Previous to this date, the HRtWS and its link to a healthy life and adequate standard of living had been recognised in diverse legal and judicial spheres worldwide, in some cases under the pressure of the initiatives of strong social movements. However, while the HRtWS is recognised by the UN State Members, it constitutes a concept in construction that has not been approached and interpreted in consensual ways by all concerned stakeholders. The present article presents a formal definition of this right with a base in human rights regulation. It attempts to dialogue with the different existing perspectives regarding the impact of its international recognition as a human right. It then elucidates the progressive development of the HRtWS in law and jurisprudence. Finally, it considers the urgency and challenge of monitoring the HRtWS and discusses important implications for public policies.

The human right to water and sanitation: a new perspective for public policies / Direito Humano à agua e ao esgotamento sanitário: uma nova perspectiva para as políticas públicas

Abstract The recognition of the human right to water and sanitation (HRtWS) by the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council in 2010 constituted a significant political measure whose direct consequences are still being assessed. Previous to this date, the HRtWS and its link to a healthy life and adequate standard of living had been recognised in diverse legal and judicial spheres worldwide, in some cases under the pressure of the initiatives of strong social movements. However, while the HRtWS is recognised by the UN State Members, it constitutes a concept in construction that has not been approached and interpreted in consensual ways by all concerned stakeholders. The present article presents a formal definition of this right with a base in human rights regulation. It attempts to dialogue with the different existing perspectives regarding the impact of its international recognition as a human right. It then elucidates the progressive development of the HRtWS in law and jurisprudence. Finally, it considers the urgency and challenge of monitoring the HRtWS and discusses important implications for public policies.

Resumo O reconhecimento do direito humano à água e ao saneamento (HRtWS) pela Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas e pelo Conselho de Direitos Humanos, em 2010, constitui uma medida política significativa cujas consequências diretas ainda estão sendo avaliadas. Anterior a esta data, a relação entre HRtWS com uma vida saudável e um padrão de vida adequado já havia sido reconhecida em diversas esferas legais e jurídicas em todo o mundo, em alguns casos devido à pressão das iniciativas de movimentos sociais fortes. No entanto, mesmo que o HRtWS tenha sido reconhecido pelos Estados Membros das Nações Unidas, ele constitui um conceito em construção que não tem sido abordado e interpretado de maneira consensual por todos os atores interessados. O presente artigo apresenta uma definição formal desse direito com base no regulamento de direitos humanos. Tenta dialogar com as diferentes perspectivas existentes sobre o impacto do seu reconhecimento internacional como um direito humano. Em seguida, esclarece o desenvolvimento progressivo dos HRtWS na lei e na jurisprudência. Por último, considera a urgência e o desafio de monitorar os HRtWS e discute implicações importantes para políticas públicas.