Olfactory and neuropeptide inputs to appetite neurons in the arcuate nucleus.

The sense of smell has potent effects on appetite, but the underlying neural mechanisms are largely a mystery. The hypothalamic arcuate nucleus contains two subsets of neurons linked to appetite: AgRP (agouti-related peptide) neurons, which enhance appetite, and POMC (pro-opiomelanocortin) neurons, which suppress appetite. Here, we find that AgRP and POMC neurons receive indirect inputs from partially overlapping areas of the olfactory cortex, thus identifying their sources of odor signals. We also find neurons directly upstream of AgRP or POMC neurons in numerous other areas, identifying potential relays between the olfactory cortex and AgRP or POMC neurons. Transcriptome profiling of individual AgRP neurons reveals differential expression of receptors for multiple neuromodulators. Notably, known ligands of the receptors define subsets of neurons directly upstream of AgRP neurons in specific brain areas. Together, these findings indicate that higher olfactory areas can differentially influence AgRP and POMC appetite neurons, that subsets of AgRP neurons can be regulated by different neuromodulators, and that subsets of neurons upstream of AgRP neurons in specific brain areas use different neuromodulators, together or in distinct combinations to modulate AgRP neurons and thus appetite.

Odor blocking of stress hormone responses.

Scents have been employed for millennia to allay stress, but whether or how they might do so is largely unknown. Fear and stress induce increases in blood stress hormones controlled by hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone neurons (CRHNs). Here, we report that two common odorants block mouse stress hormone responses to three potent stressors: physical restraint, predator odor, and male-male social confrontation. One odorant inhibits restraint and predator odor activation of excitatory neurons upstream of CRHNs in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNSTa). In addition, both activate inhibitory neurons upstream of CRHNs in the hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus (VMH) and silencing of VMH inhibitory neurons hinders odor blocking of stress. Together, these findings indicate that odor blocking can occur via two mechanisms: (1) Inhibition of excitatory neurons that transmit stress signals to CRHNs and (2) activation of inhibitory neurons that act directly or indirectly to inhibit stressor activation of CRHNs.

A psychological stressor conveyed by appetite-linked neurons.

Mammals exhibit instinctive reactions to danger critical to survival, including surges in blood stress hormones. Hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons (CRHNs) control stress hormones but how diverse stressors converge on CRHNs is poorly understood. We used sRNA profiling to define CRHN receptors for neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and then viral tracing to localize subsets of upstream neurons expressing cognate receptor ligands. Unexpectedly, one subset comprised POMC (proopiomelanocortin)-expressing neurons in the arcuate nucleus, which are linked to appetite suppression. The POMC neurons were activated by one psychological stressor, physical restraint, but not another, a predator odor. Chemogenetic activation of POMC neurons induced a stress hormone response, mimicking a stressor. Moreover, their silencing markedly reduced the stress hormone response to physical restraint, but not predator odor. These findings indicate that POMC neurons involved in appetite suppression also play a major role in the stress hormone response to a specific type of psychological stressor.

Connect-seq to superimpose molecular on anatomical neural circuit maps.

The mouse brain contains about 75 million neurons interconnected in a vast array of neural circuits. The identities and functions of individual neuronal components of most circuits are undefined. Here we describe a method, termed "Connect-seq," which combines retrograde viral tracing and single-cell transcriptomics to uncover the molecular identities of upstream neurons in a specific circuit and the signaling molecules they use to communicate. Connect-seq can generate a molecular map that can be superimposed on a neuroanatomical map to permit molecular and genetic interrogation of how the neuronal components of a circuit control its function. Application of this method to hypothalamic neurons controlling physiological responses to fear and stress reveals subsets of upstream neurons that express diverse constellations of signaling molecules and can be distinguished by their anatomical locations.

Combinatorial effects of odorants on mouse behavior.

The mechanisms by which odors induce instinctive behaviors are largely unknown. Odor detection in the mouse nose is mediated by >1, 000 different odorant receptors (ORs) and trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs). Odor perceptions are encoded combinatorially by ORs and can be altered by slight changes in the combination of activated receptors. However, the stereotyped nature of instinctive odor responses suggests the involvement of specific receptors and genetically programmed neural circuits relatively immune to extraneous odor stimuli and receptor inputs. Here, we report that, contrary to expectation, innate odor-induced behaviors can be context-dependent. First, different ligands for a given TAAR can vary in behavioral effect. Second, when combined, some attractive and aversive odorants neutralize one another's behavioral effects. Both a TAAR ligand and a common odorant block aversion to a predator odor, indicating that this ability is not unique to TAARs and can extend to an aversive response of potential importance to survival. In vitro testing of single receptors with binary odorant mixtures indicates that behavioral blocking can occur without receptor antagonism in the nose. Moreover, genetic ablation of a single receptor prevents its cognate ligand from blocking predator odor aversion, indicating that the blocking requires sensory input from the receptor. Together, these findings indicate that innate odor-induced behaviors can depend on context, that signals from a single receptor can block innate odor aversion, and that instinctive behavioral responses to odors can be modulated by interactions in the brain among signals derived from different receptors.

A specific area of olfactory cortex involved in stress hormone responses to predator odours.

Instinctive reactions to danger are critical to the perpetuation of species and are observed throughout the animal kingdom. The scent of predators induces an instinctive fear response in mice that includes behavioural changes, as well as a surge in blood stress hormones that mobilizes multiple body systems to escape impending danger. How the olfactory system routes predator signals detected in the nose to achieve these effects is unknown. Here we identify a specific area of the olfactory cortex in mice that induces stress hormone responses to volatile predator odours. Using monosynaptic and polysynaptic viral tracers, we found that multiple olfactory cortical areas transmit signals to hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons, which control stress hormone levels. However, only one minor cortical area, the amygdalo-piriform transition area (AmPir), contained neurons upstream of CRH neurons that were activated by volatile predator odours. Chemogenetic stimulation of AmPir activated CRH neurons and induced an increase in blood stress hormones, mimicking an instinctive fear response. Moreover, chemogenetic silencing of AmPir markedly reduced the stress hormone response to predator odours without affecting a fear behaviour. These findings suggest that AmPir, a small area comprising <5% of the olfactory cortex, plays a key part in the hormonal component of the instinctive fear response to volatile predator scents.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals receptor transformations during olfactory neurogenesis.

The sense of smell allows chemicals to be perceived as diverse scents. We used single-neuron RNA sequencing to explore the developmental mechanisms that shape this ability as nasal olfactory neurons mature in mice. Most mature neurons expressed only one of the ~1000 odorant receptor genes (Olfrs) available, and at a high level. However, many immature neurons expressed low levels of multiple Olfrs. Coexpressed Olfrs localized to overlapping zones of the nasal epithelium, suggesting regional biases, but not to single genomic loci. A single immature neuron could express Olfrs from up to seven different chromosomes. The mature state in which expression of Olfr genes is restricted to one per neuron emerges over a developmental progression that appears to be independent of neuronal activity involving sensory transduction molecules.

Olfactory receptor genes expressed in distinct lineages are sequestered in different nuclear compartments.

The olfactory system translates a vast array of volatile chemicals into diverse odor perceptions and innate behaviors. Odor detection in the mouse nose is mediated by 1,000 different odorant receptors (ORs) and 14 trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs). ORs are used in a combinatorial manner to encode the unique identities of myriad odorants. However, some TAARs appear to be linked to innate responses, raising questions about regulatory mechanisms that might segregate OR and TAAR expression in appropriate subsets of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). Here, we report that OSNs that express TAARs comprise at least two subsets that are biased to express TAARs rather than ORs. The two subsets are further biased in Taar gene choice and their distribution within the sensory epithelium, with each subset preferentially expressing a subgroup of Taar genes within a particular spatial domain in the epithelium. Our studies reveal one mechanism that may regulate the segregation of Olfr (OR) and Taar expression in different OSNs: the sequestration of Olfr and Taar genes in different nuclear compartments. Although most Olfr genes colocalize near large central heterochromatin aggregates in the OSN nucleus, Taar genes are located primarily at the nuclear periphery, coincident with a thin rim of heterochromatin. Taar-expressing OSNs show a shift of one Taar allele away from the nuclear periphery. Furthermore, examination of hemizygous mice with a single Taar allele suggests that the activation of a Taar gene is accompanied by an escape from the peripheral repressive heterochromatin environment to a more permissive interior chromatin environment.

Olfactory receptor patterning in a higher primate.

The mammalian olfactory system detects a plethora of environmental chemicals that are perceived as odors or stimulate instinctive behaviors. Studies using odorant receptor (OR) genes have provided insight into the molecular and organizational strategies underlying olfaction in mice. One important unanswered question, however, is whether these strategies are conserved in primates. To explore this question, we examined the macaque, a higher primate phylogenetically close to humans. Here we report that the organization of sensory inputs in the macaque nose resembles that in mouse in some respects, but not others. As in mouse, neurons with different ORs are interspersed in the macaque nose, and there are spatial zones that differ in their complement of ORs and extend axons to different domains in the olfactory bulb of the brain. However, whereas the mouse has multiple discrete band-like zones, the macaque appears to have only two broad zones. It is unclear whether the organization of OR inputs in a rodent/primate common ancestor degenerated in primates or, alternatively became more sophisticated in rodents. The mouse nose has an additional small family of chemosensory receptors, called trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), which may detect social cues. Here we find that TAARs are also expressed in the macaque nose, suggesting that TAARs may also play a role in human olfactory perception. We further find that one human TAAR responds to rotten fish, suggesting a possible role as a sentinel to discourage ingestion of food harboring pathogenic microorganisms.

A pharmacological network for lifespan extension in Caenorhabditis elegans.

One goal of aging research is to find drugs that delay the onset of age-associated disease. Studies in invertebrates, particularly Caenorhabditis elegans, have uncovered numerous genes involved in aging, many conserved in mammals. However, which of these encode proteins suitable for drug targeting is unknown. To investigate this question, we screened a library of compounds with known mammalian pharmacology for compounds that increase C. elegans lifespan. We identified 60 compounds that increase longevity in C. elegans, 33 of which also increased resistance to oxidative stress. Many of these compounds are drugs approved for human use. Enhanced resistance to oxidative stress was associated primarily with compounds that target receptors for biogenic amines, such as dopamine or serotonin. A pharmacological network constructed with these data reveal that lifespan extension and increased stress resistance cluster together in a few pharmacological classes, most involved in intercellular signaling. These studies identify compounds that can now be explored for beneficial effects on aging in mammals, as well as tools that can be used to further investigate the mechanisms underlying aging in C. elegans.

A large-scale analysis of odor coding in the olfactory epithelium.

Mammals can perceive and discriminate myriad volatile chemicals as having a distinct odor. Odorants are initially detected by odorant receptors (ORs) on olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) in the nose. In the mouse, each OSN expresses one of ∼1000 different OR genes. Although OSNs and their expressed ORs constitute the fundamental units of sensory input to the brain, a comprehensive understanding of how they encode odor identities is still lacking. To gain a broader and more detailed understanding of odorant recognition and odor coding at this level, we tested the responses of 3000 mouse OSNs to 125 odorants with diverse structures and perceived odors. These studies revealed extraordinary diversity, but also bias, in odorant recognition by the OSN, and thus OR, repertoire. They indicate that most OSNs are narrowly tuned to detect a subset of odorants with related structures and often related odors, but that the repertoire also includes broadly tuned components. Strikingly, the vast majority of odorants activated a unique set of OSNs, usually two or more in combination. The resulting combinatorial codes varied in size among odorants and sometimes contained both narrowly and broadly tuned components. While many OSNs recognized multiple odorants, some appeared specific for a given pheromone or other animal-associated compound, or for one or more odorants with a particular odor quality, raising the possibility that signals derived from some OSNs and ORs might elicit an innate behavior or convey a specific odor quality.

A high-throughput screen for chemicals that increase the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans.

One long-term goal of aging research is to find drugs that can delay aging and the onset of age-associated diseases. With this in mind, we screened 88,000 chemicals for the ability to increase the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes. We found that mianserin, a serotonin receptor antagonist used as an antidepressant in humans, can increase C. elegans lifespan when given only during adulthood. This effect is reduced or abolished by mutations that affect serotonin synthesis or serotonin reuptake at synapses. It also requires a serotonin receptor and an octopamine receptor, both of which are inhibited by the drug. Mianserin has no effect on the lifespan of animals with increased longevity due to dietary restriction or with a mutation that reduces food intake, indicating that the drug extends lifespan via mechanisms linked to dietary restriction. These studies indicate that lifespan can be increased by inhibiting certain kinds of neurotransmission previously implicated in food sensing, possibly by mimicking a physiological state associated with dietary restriction.

Formyl peptide receptors are candidate chemosensory receptors in the vomeronasal organ.

The identification of receptors that detect environmental stimuli lays a foundation for exploring the mechanisms and neural circuits underlying sensation. The mouse vomeronasal organ (VNO), which detects pheromones and other semiochemicals, has 2 known families of chemoreceptors, V1Rs and V2Rs. Here, we report a third family of mouse VNO receptors comprising 5 of 7 members of the formyl peptide receptor (FPR) family. Unlike other FPRs, which function in the immune system, these FPRs are selectively expressed in VNO neurons in patterns strikingly similar to those of V1Rs and V2Rs. Each FPR is expressed in a different small subset of neurons that are highly dispersed in the neuroepithelium, consistently coexpress either G alpha(i2) or G alpha(o), and lack other chemoreceptors examined. Given the presence of formylated peptides in bacteria and mitochondria, possible roles for VNO FPRs include the assessment of conspecifics or other species based on variations in normal bacterial flora or mitochondrial proteins.

An antidepressant that extends lifespan in adult Caenorhabditis elegans.

The mechanisms that determine the lifespan of an organism are still largely a mystery. One goal of ageing research is to find drugs that would increase lifespan and vitality when given to an adult animal. To this end, we tested 88,000 chemicals for the ability to extend the lifespan of adult Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes. Here we report that a drug used as an antidepressant in humans increases C. elegans lifespan. In humans, this drug blocks neural signalling by the neurotransmitter serotonin. In C. elegans, the effect of the drug on lifespan is reduced or eradicated by mutations that affect serotonin synthesis, serotonin re-uptake at synapses, or either of two G-protein-coupled receptors: one that recognizes serotonin and the other that detects another neurotransmitter, octopamine. In vitro studies show that the drug acts as an antagonist at both receptors. Testing of the drug on dietary-restricted animals or animals with mutations that affect lifespan indicates that its effect on lifespan involves mechanisms associated with lifespan extension by dietary restriction. These studies indicate that lifespan can be extended by blocking certain types of neurotransmission implicated in food sensing in the adult animal, possibly leading to a state of perceived, although not real, starvation.

A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium.

The mammalian olfactory system detects chemicals sensed as odours as well as social cues that stimulate innate responses. Odorants are detected in the nasal olfactory epithelium by the odorant receptor family, whose approximately 1,000 members allow the discrimination of a myriad of odorants. Here we report the discovery of a second family of receptors in the mouse olfactory epithelium. Genes encoding these receptors, called 'trace amine-associated receptors' (TAARs), are present in human, mouse and fish. Like odorant receptors, individual mouse TAARs are expressed in unique subsets of neurons dispersed in the epithelium. Notably, at least three mouse TAARs recognize volatile amines found in urine: one detects a compound linked to stress, whereas the other two detect compounds enriched in male versus female urine-one of which is reportedly a pheromone. The evolutionary conservation of the TAAR family suggests a chemosensory function distinct from odorant receptors. Ligands identified for TAARs thus far suggest a function associated with the detection of social cues.

Combinatorial effects of odorant mixes in olfactory cortex.

In mammals, each odorant is detected by a combination of different odorant receptors. Signals from different types of receptors are segregated in the nose and the olfactory bulb, but appear to be combined in individual neurons in the olfactory cortex. Here, we report that binary odorant mixes stimulate cortical neurons that are not stimulated by their individual component odorants. We propose that cortical neurons require combinations of receptor inputs for activation and that merging the receptor codes of two odorants provides novel combinations of receptor inputs that stimulate neurons beyond those activated by the single odorants. These findings may explain why odorant mixtures can elicit novel odor percepts in humans.

Feedback loops link odor and pheromone signaling with reproduction.

Pheromones can have profound effects on reproductive physiology and behavior in mammals. To investigate the neural circuits underlying these effects, we used a genetic transneuronal tracer to identify neurons that synapse with GnRH (LHRH) neurons, the key regulators of reproduction. We then asked whether the connected neurons are presynaptic or postsynaptic to GnRH neurons and analyzed their responses to chemosensory cues. Surprisingly, these experiments indicate that GnRH neurons receive pheromone signals from both odor and pheromone relays in the brain and may also receive common odor signals. Moreover, feedback loops are evident whereby GnRH neurons could influence both odor and pheromone processing. Remarkably, approximately 800 GnRH neurons communicate with approximately 50,000 neurons in 53 functionally diverse brain areas, with some connections exhibiting sexual dimorphism. These studies reveal a complex interplay between reproduction and other functions in which GnRH neurons appear to integrate information from multiple sources and modulate a variety of brain functions.