Reference Values of the Forearm Tremor Power Spectra for Youth Athletes.

The aim of the study was to determine reference graphs of power spectral density functions of forearm physiological tremor and to compare their parameters in the male and female population of young athletes from various sports. One hundred fifty-nine (159) female (15.7 ± 2.1 years, 59.8 ± 8.1 kg, 169.1 ± 7.5 cm) and 276 male (16.4 ± 1.9 years 72.7 ± 10.3 kg and 180.9 ± 8.7 cm) youth athletes participated in the study. Forearm tremor was measured accelerometrically in a sitting position. Power spectrum density (PSD) function was calculated for each individual tremor waveform. Because of right skewness of power distribution, the PSD functions were subjected to logarithmic transformation. Average log-powers in low (2-4 Hz) and high (8-14 Hz) frequency ranges and mean frequencies in those ranges were analyzed. Tremor log-powers for male were greater than for female athletes (p < 0.001), while frequencies of spectrum maxima did not differ from each other. Frequencies of spectrum maxima correlated (p < 0.001) with age (r = 0.277 and 0.326 for males and females, respectively). The obtained reference functions may be utilized in order to quantify and assess tremor size and its changes evoked by stress and fatigue, which can be applied for selection and training monitoring in sports, but also in medicine for detection and diagnosis of pathologic tremor in young individuals.

The Influence of Fatigue on the Characteristics of Physiological Tremor and Hoffmann Reflex in Young Men.

The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between changes in physiological tremor after exercise and changes in the traction properties of the stretch reflex indirectly assessed using the Hoffmann reflex test. The research involved 19 young men practicing canoe sprint (age 16.4 ± 0.7 years, body mass 74.4 ± 6.7 kg, body height 182.1 ± 4.3 cm, training experience 4.8 ± 1.6 years). During resting tests, Hoffmann reflex measurements were performed from the soleus muscle, physiological tremor of the lower limb, and the blood lactate concentration was determined. Then, a graded test was carried out on the kayak/canoe ergometer. Immediately after the exercise and in the 10th and 25th minute following the exercise, Hoffmann's reflex of the soleus muscle was measured. The physiological tremor was measured at 5, 15 and 30 min after exercise. Blood lactate concentrations were determined immediately after physiological tremor. Both the parameters of Hoffmann's reflex and physiological tremor changed significantly after exercise. There were no significant interrelationships between Hoffmann reflex measurements and physiological tremor in resting and post-exercise conditions. No significant correlation was detected between changes in physiological tremor and changes in Hoffmann reflex parameters. It is to be assumed that there is no connection between a stretch reflex and a physiological tremor.

Model of the Performance Based on Artificial Intelligence-Fuzzy Logic Description of Physical Activity.

The aim of the study was to build a fuzzy model of lower limb peak torque in an isokinetic mode. The study involved 93 male participants (28 male deaf soccer players, 19 hearing soccer players and 46 deaf untraining male). A fuzzy computational model of different levels of physical activity with a focus on the lower limbs was constructed. The proposed fuzzy model assessing lower limb peak torque in an isokinetic mode demonstrated its effectiveness. The novelty of our research lies in the use of hierarchical fuzzy logic to extract computational rules from data provided explicitly and then to determine the corresponding physiological and pathological mechanisms. The contribution of our research lies in complementing the methods for describing physiology, pathology and rehabilitation with fuzzy parameters, including the so-called dynamic norm embedded in the model.

Serum levels of bone formation and resorption markers in relation to vitamin D status in professional gymnastics and physically active men during upper and lower body high-intensity exercise.

PURPOSE/INTRODUCTION: To compare serum levels of bone turnover markers in athletes and non-athletes, and to evaluate the relationship between serum levels of vitamin D metabolites and exercise-induced changes in biomarker levels. METHODS: Sixteen elite male artistic gymnasts (EG; 21.4 ± 0.8 years-old) and 16 physically active men (the control group, PAM; 20.9 ± 1.2 years-old) performed lower and upper body 30-s Wingate anaerobic tests (LBWT and UBWT, respectively). For biomarker analysis, blood samples were collected before, and 5 and 30 min after exercise. Samples for vitamin D levels were collected before exercise. N-terminal propeptide of type I collagen (PINP) was analysed as a marker of bone formation. C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX) was analysed as a marker of bone resorption. RESULTS: UBWT fitness readings were better in the EG group than in the PAM group, with no difference in LBWT readings between the groups. UBWT mean power was 8.8% higher in subjects with 25(OH)D3 levels over 22.50 ng/ml and in those with 24,25(OH)2D3 levels over 1.27 ng/ml. Serum CTX levels increased after both tests in the PAM group, with no change in the EG group. PINP levels did not change in either group; however, in PAM subjects with 25(OH)D3 levels above the median, they were higher than those in EG subjects. CONCLUSION: Vitamin D metabolites affect the anaerobic performance and bone turnover markers at rest and after exercise. Further, adaptation to physical activity modulates the effect of anaerobic exercise on bone metabolism markers.

Power-velocity relationship and muscular strength in female volleyball players during preparatory period and competition season.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to investigate changes of power-velocity relationship and muscular strength of female volleyball players during preparatory period and competition season. METHODS: The study was conducted on eleven female volleyball players: age 21.6 ± 1.7 years, body height 177.9 ± 4.7 cm, body mass 71.3 ± 6.6 kg. Power-velocity relationship was determined by means of five maximal 10-second cycloergometer efforts with external loads equal to: 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5% of body weight (BW). The joint torque of flexors and extensors of an elbow, shoulder, hip, knee and trunk was measured using a torque meter. The measurement were taken before (I) and after (II) the preparatory period, after the first (III) and second (IV) competitive season. RESULTS: The power with a load equal to 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0% BW increased significantly after first and second competitive season. The sums of joint torque for the lower and upper limb changed insignificantly. In the case of the right upper limb, sum of the joint torques was significantly reduced by 9.5% between measurement I and IV. Sum of the left upper limb was significantly decreased by 9.8% between measurement I and II. Sum of the joint torque of the trunk was significantly increased between measurements I and II, III and IV by 12.9%, 12.3% and 11.2%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Obtained results may suggest that selection of the training loads was adequate for training power output and muscle strength of lower limbs but too little emphasis was placed on development of strength in the muscles of the upper limbs.

The impact of skinfolds measurement on somatotype determination in Heath-Carter method.

OBJECTIVES: The study aim was to determine if a difference exists in skinfold thickness measured by two interchangeable approaches; (1) supraspinale skinfold recommended in the Heath-Carter method and (2) iliac crest skinfold measurement. The question arises as to whether each approach has a similar or different effect on endomorphy determination, and whether there is a possibility to estimate the supraspinale skinfold based on other skinfold measurements. METHODS: A group of 186 male and 161 female students participated in this study. Anthropometric examination included all somatic measurements, as recommended in the Heath-Carter protocol, and the iliac crest skinfold measurement. Estimation of the supraspinale skinfold was performed based on the multiple linear regression procedure. RESULTS: Skinfold thickness measured in the supraspinale and iliac crest differed (p<0.001) in both men (5.41±1.65 mm and 9.55±4.05 mm, respectively) and women (8.87±4.08 mm and 15.20±6.85 mm), respectively. Endomorphy was significantly higher (0.46 in men, 0.63 in women) when the iliac crest skinfold was used. Subscapular skinfold and iliac crest skinfolds were included in the linear regression model for supraspinale skinfold estimation (R2 = 0.724, SE = 0.9 mm and R2 = 0.947, SE = 2.3 mm for men and women, respectively). CONCLUSION: Two common skinfold approaches produced different measurements between the supraspinale and iliac crest skinfolds, which subsequently affected estimated endomorphy. Regression equations for supraspinale skinfold enabled correction of endomorphy in the case of improperly applied measurement (i.e. iliac crest) and thus, could allow for uniform somatotype estimation according to Carter and Heath approach.

Secular trends in body height, body weight, BMI and fat percentage in Polish university students in a period of 50 years.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to determine changes in the magnitude and direction of secular trends in body height, body weight, body mass index (BMI) and fat percentage in university students from a university of technology and a university of physical education in a period of 50 years. METHODS: The data were derived from the examinations of male students from the Warsaw University of Technology, conducted four times, in 1959, 1971, 1994, 2011, and male students from the Józef Pilsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, who were examined in 1963, 1972, 1996, and 2012. Body height, body weight and thickness of 2 skinfolds (triceps skinfold and abdomen skinfold) were measured. Body mass index (BMI) and fat percentage (FAT%) were also calculated. RESULTS: Current university students are taller and heavier than their peers from the previous decades, with BMI remaining within the reference range. A substantial increase in fat percentage was found in both groups. Over the period of fifty years, mean fat percentage in students from the university of technology increased by 6.3% (F1,3 = 116.56, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.3736), whereas this increase in the students from the university of physical education rose by 3.5% (F1,3 = 72.94, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.3181). CONCLUSION: Changes in secular trends in the students from both universities are likely to be linked to the dynamic economic and systematic transformation in Poland observed in the period of the last 50 years. The period of economic transformations in the last decade was more conducive to physical development of university students than the previous period of economic crises.

Concurrent validity and reliability of proprietary and open-source jump mat systems for the assessment of vertical jumps in sport sciences.

PURPOSE: Vertical jump tests are used to assess lower-limb power of athletes in sport sciences. Flight time measurement with jump-mat systems is the most common procedure for this purpose. The aim of this study was to analyze the concurrent validity and reliability of two proprietary systems (Globus and Axon) and an open-source system (Chronojump). METHODS: A conditioning electric circuit governed by a controlled wave generator is designed to substitute athletes jumping on a physical mat. In order to look for possible differences associated to timekeeping by each microcontroller device, all three systems are fed by the circuit simultaneously. RESULTS: Concurrent validity was high for the three systems. Standarized typical error of estimate (TEE) was trivial, according to MBI interpretation as well as perfect Pearson correlation coefficient. Reliability was assessed based on the coefficient of variation of flight time measure, resulting in 0.17-0.63% (0.05-0.12 cm) for Globus, 0.01% (0.09 cm) for Chronojump and 5.65-9.38% (2.15-3.53 cm) for Axon. These results show that all jump-mat system produced nearly identical measures of flight time so they can be considered valid and reliable for practical purposes. In comparison, Chronojump showed the best performance whereas Axon showed enough variability and disagreement to pose a problem in testing elite athletes. CONCLUSIONS: These experiments show that open-source jump mats are as valid and reliable as their proprietary counterparts at a lower cost. Therefore, practitioners can be confident in using Globus or Chronojump systems to test athletes' jump height because of their negligible errors and Axon system to monitor general population.

Changes of Strength and Maximum Power of Lower Extremities in Adolescent Handball Players During a Two-year Training Cycle.

The aim of the study was to investigate changes of strength and power of the lower extremities in adolescent handball players during a two-year training cycle. Thirty-one male handball players (age 16.0 ± 0.2 years, body mass 81.4 ± 9.7 kg, body height 188.2 ± 6.4 cm) took part in this study. All tests were conducted three times at the beginning of a one-year training programme. The maximum joint torque (JT) of flexors and extensors of the elbow, shoulder, hip, knee and trunk was measured under static conditions. Power of lower extremities was assessed with a repeated sprint ability (RSA) test on a cycloergometer and jump tests: akimbo counter-movement jump (ACMJ), counter-movement jump (CMJ) and spike jump tests on a force plate. Peak power (PP) increased from 914.8 ± 93.9 to 970.0 ± 89.2 and 1037.8 ± 114.4 W (p < 0.05) following the RSA test results. Maximum power increased significantly (p < 0.05) in ACMJ (1951.9 ± 359.7 to 2141.9 ± 378.5 and 2268.5 ± 395.9 W) and CMJ tests (2646.3 ± 415.6 to 2831.2 ± 510.8 and 3064.6 ± 444.5 W). Although significant differences in JT (p < 0.05) were observed during the two year period, their values related to body mass for the lower right extremity, sum of the trunk and sum of all muscle groups increased significantly between the first and the second measurement (from 13.7 ± 1.8 to 14.58 ± 1.99 N·m·kg-1, from 9.3 ± 1.5 to 10.39 ± 2.16 N·m·kg-1, from 43.4 ± 5.2 to 46.31 ± 6.83 N·m·kg-1, respectively). The main finding of the study is that PP in the RSA test and maximal power in the ACMJ and CMJ increase in relation to training experience and age in the group of youth handball players.

Leg strength and power in Polish striker soccer players.

PURPOSE: The main goal of the present study was to examine muscle strength and power of dominant and non-dominant leg, knee extensors and flexors, and their correlations with jumping performances in soccer players. A secondary aim was to evaluate muscle sense. METHODS: 31 male professional strikers (age 20.9 ± 2.3 years, body mass 75.1 ± 6.6 kg, body height 179.5 ± 4.7 cm) participated in the study. The power output of lower extremities and the height of rise of the body mass centre during vertical jumps were measured using a force plate. The maximum muscle torque of the flexors and extensors of the knee were measured under isometric conditions using a special isometric torquemeter. Force sense was measured in isometric conditions in two tests: (a) fifty percent of the maximal voluntary contraction was set as a value of target force and the participants were instructed to reproduce the target force, (b) the participants attempted to develop a torque reproducing a sine course within the range of 10 to 50% of MVC performed. RESULTS: A direct relationship was observed between the peak muscle torque in knee extensors developed during isokinetic contraction at all velocities and power and height of three types of vertical jumps ( p <0.05). No correlation was observed between jumping performance and muscle torque under isometric condition. No differences were found in strength and jumping abilities as well as in force sense between dominant and non-dominant legs. CONCLUSIONS: This study offered a comprehensive and complete evaluation of leg muscle strength, sense and power, with the use of using force plate and isokinetic dynamometry.

Countermovement depth - a variable which clarifies the relationship between the maximum power output and height of a vertical jump.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to identify the determinants of peak power achieved during vertical jumps in order to clarify relationship between the height of jump and the ability to exert maximum power. METHODS: One hundred young (16.8±1.8 years) sportsmen participated in the study (body height 1.861 ± 0.109 m, body weight 80.3 ± 9.2 kg). Each participant performed three jump tests: countermovement jump (CMJ), akimbo countermovement jump (ACMJ), and spike jump (SPJ). A force plate was used to measure ground reaction force and to determine peak power output. The following explanatory variables were included in the model: jump height, body mass, and the lowering of the centre of mass before launch (countermovement depth). A model was created using multiple regression analysis and allometric scaling. RESULTS: The model was used to calculate the expected power value for each participant, which correlated strongly with real values. The value of the coefficient of determination R2 equalled 0.89, 0.90 and 0.98, respectively, for the CMJ, ACMJ, and SPJ jumps. The countermovement depth proved to be a variable strongly affecting the maximum power of jump. If the countermovement depth remains constant, the relative peak power is a simple function of jump height. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the jump height of an individual is an exact indicator of their ability to produce maximum power. The presented model has a potential to be utilized under field condition for estimating the maximum power output of vertical jumps.

Accelerometer profile of motion of the pelvic girdle in butterfly swimming.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to develop a method to measure and analyse kinematics of movement of the pelvic girdle in butterfly swimming in order to support training of technical skills. METHODS: A device for recording triaxial accelerations and triaxial rotational angular velocities was mounted on the dorsal part of the pelvic girdle of athlete. The measurements were performed in ten elite butterfly swimmers (age: 23.1 ± 3.7 years, body height: 187.6 ± 4.3 cm, body mass 83.4 ± 6.33 kg). The task of the athlete was to swim one length of short course pool at maximal intensity. Individual mean graphical and numerical profiles of the kinematics of the movement of the pelvic girdle was computed, within the average cycle based on five consecutive cycles. RESULTS: Statistical analysis of numerical individual parameters of profiles of the athletes studied revealed statistically significant differences between the swimmers. Statistically significant correlations were also found between personal best times in 50 m swimming (r = -0.76, p < 0.05) and 100 m swimming (r = -0.76, p < 0.05) and duration of the part of the cycle connected with the decline in velocity from maximum translational motion velocity obtained during propulsion with the upper and lower limbs to minimum value of the velocity obtained before the beginning of propulsion only with the lower limbs. CONCLUSION: The proposed measurement method, presentation and analysis of the profile of the pelvic girdle motion in butterfly swimming represents a good tool for fast and effective qualitative and quantitative biomechanical evaluation of movement technique components.

Vitamin D status and its relation to exercise performance and iron status in young ice hockey players.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to examine the association between serum vitamin D concentration and isometric strength of various muscle groups, vertical jump performance, and repeated sprint ability in young ice hockey players. The secondary aim was to determine the association between vitamin D deficiency and indices of iron status. METHODS: Fifty male ice hockey players (17.2±0.9 years) participated in this cross-sectional study. Exercise performance was evaluated using isometric strength measures of upper and lower extremities, vertical jump performance and repeated sprint ability (RSA). Blood samples were collected for the determination of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and multiple indicies of iron status. RESULTS: The mean serum 25(OH)D concentration was 30.4 ng·ml-1 and ranged from 12.5 to 91.4 ng·ml-1. Eleven participants (22%) had vitamin D deficiency and 20 athletes (40%) had vitamin D insufficiency. Serum 25(OH)D concentration was not positively correlated with isometric muscle strength, vertical jump performance, or RSA after adjusting for age, training experience, fat mass, fat free mass and height. Serum 25(OH)D concentration was not associated with indices of iron status. CONCLUSION: Vitamin D insufficiency is highly prevalent in ice hockey players, but 25(OH)D concentration but it is not associated with exercise performance or indices of iron status.

Individual and Combined Influence of ACE and ACTN3 Genes on Muscle Phenotypes in Polish Athletes.

Orysiak, J, Mazur-Rózycka, J, Busko, K, Gajewski, J, Szczepanska, B, and Malczewska-Lenczowska, J. Individual and combined influence of ACE and ACTN3 genes on muscle phenotypes in polish athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2776-2782, 2018-The aim of this study was to examine the association between angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and α-actinin-3 (ACTN3) genes, independently or in combination, and muscle strength and power in male and female athletes. The study involved 398 young male (n = 266) and female (n = 132) athletes representing various sport disciplines (ice hockey, canoeing, swimming, and volleyball). All were Caucasians. The following measurements were taken: height of jump and mechanical power in countermovement jump (CMJ) and spike jump (SPJ), and muscle strength of 10 muscle groups (flexors and extensors of the elbow, shoulder, hip, knee, and trunk). The insertion-deletion (I/D) polymorphism of ACE and the R577X polymorphism of ACTN3 were typed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), respectively. The genotype distribution of the ACE and ACTN3 genes did not differ significantly between groups of athletes for either sex. There was no association between ACE and ACTN3 genotypes (alone or in combination) and sum of muscle strength, height of jump or mechanical power in both jump tests (CMJ and SPJ) for male and female athletes. These findings do not support an influential role of the ACE and ACTN3 genes in determining power/strength performance of elite athletes.

Somatotype variables related to strength and power output in male basketball players.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between somatotype, muscular strength, power output measured in maximal cycle ergometer exercise bouts, and maximal power output and height of rise of the body mass centre (jump height) measured in akimbo counter movement jump (ACMJ), counter movement jump (CMJ) and spike jump (SPJ), in male basketball players. METHODS: Thirteen male basketball players (second division, age 19.4 ± 0.8 years, body height 192.9 ± 5.6 cm, body mass 88.8 ± 8.6 kg, training experience 9.3 ± 0.8 years) participated in the study. Somatotype was determined using the Heath-Carter method. Maximal joint torques were measured under static conditions. Power output was measured in 2 maximal cycle ergometer exercise bouts, 10 seconds each, with increasing external loads equal to 7.5 and 10.0% of the body weight (BW). All jump trials (ACMJ, CMJ and SPJ) were performed on a force plate. RESULTS: The mean somatotype of basketball players amounted to: 2.8-4.2-3.2. The sum of the joint torques for left and right lower extremities (0.613), trunk (0.631) and all six measured muscle groups (0.647) were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with the mesomorphic component. Endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic components were correlated insignificantly with values of maximal power and height of jump during ACMJ, CMJ and SPJ trials. The power output measured in maximal cycle ergometer exercise bouts with increasing external loads was significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with mesomorphy and ectomorphy. CONCLUSION: It can be assumed that basketball players' anthropometric characteristics can influence their level of performance but it is not a decisive factor.

The biomechanical characteristics of elite deaf and hearing female soccer players: comparative analysis.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to examine the differences in body composition, strength and power of lower limbs, height of jump measured for the akimbo counter movement jumps, counter movement jump and spike jumps between deaf and hearing elite female soccer players. METHODS: Twenty deaf (age: 23.7±5.0 years, hearing loss: 96±13.9 dB) and 25 hearing (age: 20.3±3.8 years) participated in the study. Their WHR and BMI were calculated. Body fat was measured using the BIA method. The maximal power and height of jump were measured by force plate. Biodex dynamometer was used to evaluate isokinetic isometric strength of the hamstrings and quadriceps. RESULTS: Significant differences between hearing and deaf soccer players in anthropometric values were for the waist and calf circumferences and the WHR index ( p < 0.01, effect size 0.24-0.79). Statistically significant differences were observed for flexion of the lower limb in the knee joint for the relative joint torque and relative power obtained for the angular velocity of 300 degˑs-1 for both lower limbs (p < 0.01, effect size 0.19-0.48) and for 180 degˑs-1 during flexion of the left limb (p = 0.02, effect size 0.13). The hearing female football players developed significantly greater MVC in all the cases. Statistically significant differences between deaf and hearing athletes were found for spike jump for maximal power (1828.6 ± 509.4 W and 2215.2 ± 464.5 W, respectively; p = 0.02, effect size 0.14). CONCLUSIONS: Hearing impairment does not limit the opportunities for development of physical fitness in the population of deaf women.

Age- and sex-related differences in the anthropometry and neuromuscular fitness of competitive taekwondo athletes.

Anthropometry and neuromuscular fitness have been shown to relate with taekwondo (TKD) performance; however, little information is available on the variation of these fitness components by sex and age in athletes practicing this sport. The aim of the present study was to examine the anthropometry and neuromuscular fitness of TKD athletes by sex and age. A total of 393 athletes (7-48 years old), separated into six age groups (7-9, 10-11, 12-13, 14-17, 18-32, and 33+), were examined for anthropometry and performed a series of neuromuscular fitness tests (flexibility, agility, muscle power, and isometric strength). An age × sex interaction on body mass, body height, and body fat percentage (BF, p≤0.003, η2≥0.045), but not on body mass index (p=0.172, η2=0.020), was shown, where a larger increase in body mass and body height from 12-13 to 14-17 groups was observed in males than in females, and the sex difference in BF increased from 12-13 to 14-17 age group. An age × sex interaction on sit-and-reach (SAR) test, mean power output in the Bosco test, and Abalakov jump (p≤0.038, η2≥0.031) was observed with larger differences between 12-13 and 18-32 groups in males than in females. In SAR, it was remarkable that the male athletes achieved similar scores as female athletes in the 18-32 group. An age × sex group interaction on measures of isometric muscle strength (right and left handgrip, trunk, and legs) was also shown (p≤0.002, η2≥0.068), where larger differences in male than female athletes were observed between the 12-13 and 14-17 groups. From a practical perspective, coaches can use these findings as reference for the evaluation of their athletes. Because the anthropometric characteristics and neuromuscular fitness varied by sex (i.e., highest scores in males, except flexibility) and age (i.e., highest scores in the 18-32 age group) with unique sport-specific patterns in TKD athletes, these findings would be important for the development of specific training programs.

Measuring the force of punches and kicks among combat sport athletes using a modified punching bag with an embedded accelerometer.

The main aim of the study was to design a new system to measure punching and kicking forces as well as reaction times in combat sport athletes. In addition, the study examined whether there were any intergender differences in the force of punches thrown by boxers and kicking forces delivered by taekwondo athletes. Boxers (male, n = 13; female, n = 7) were examined for the force of single straight punches and taekwondo athletes (male, n = 14; female, n = 14) for force of single Apdolio and Dwit Chagi kicks. The punching bag was equipped with acceleration transducers and gyroscopes embedded in a cylinder covered with a layer to absorb shock as well as a set of colour signal diodes. Value of the punching bag's acceleration was used for calculating: strike force; the punching location on the bag; and time of a strike. The relative error of force calculation was 3%; the relative error in acceleration measurement was less than 1%. The force of a straight rear-hand punch was greater than the force of a lead-hand punch among male and female boxers. The force of Apdolio kick delivered with a rear leg was greater compared to a lead leg among female and male taekwondo athletes. Significant gender differences were noticed in the force in both types of kicks. In boxers, intergender differences were reported only for the force of a punch thrown with the rear hand. Based on these findings, it was concluded that the modified punching bag is a good diagnostic tool for combat sports.

Accelerometer profile of motion of the pelvic girdle in breaststroke swimming.

The aim of the study was to develop a method for measurement and analysis of kinematics of the pelvic girdle movement in breaststroke swimming to support training of technical skills. The measurements were performed in five elite breaststroke swimmers. A recording device for triaxial accelerations and triaxial rotational angular velocity was mounted on the dorsal part of the pelvic girdle of the athlete. The task of the athlete was to swim one length of the 50 m swimming pool with the intensity similar to competition. From the consecutive cycles of swimming motion, we developed individual mean graphical and numerical profiles of the kinematics of the pelvic girdle movement within the average cycle. Mean basic values of the characteristics were compared with the values documented in the literature obtained by means of the video analysis or using the method of measurement of the velocity of the unwound rope. The comparison revealed that the results in the group studied were very similar to the results obtained using other methods and were typical of elite athletes. Analysis of the motion profiles for the pelvic girdle in breaststroke swimmers indicated that the results obtained reflected individual technique of performing individual phases of swimming cycles. The proposed measurement method, presentation and analysis of the profile of the pelvic girdle motion in breaststroke swimming represents a good tool for fast and effective biomechanical evaluation of motion technique components.

Relationship Between ACTN3 R577X Polymorphism and Physical Abilities in Polish Athletes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between α-actinin 3 (ACTN3) R577X polymorphism and physical abilities of male athletes performing various sports (volleyball, ice hockey, canoeing, swimming). One hundred eighty-five subjects were recruited for the study. The following measurements were taken: height of jump and power output in countermovement jump and spike jump (SPJ) and muscle strength of 10 muscle groups. The R577X polymorphism of ACTN3 was typed using polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism. The results showed that RR genotype carriers develop greater power output in SPJ than RX and XX individuals (44.6 ± 11.1, 42.6 ± 11.0, and 38.4 ± 7.9 W·kg(-1) for RR, RX, and XX genotypes, respectively) and height of jump in SPJ (0.537 ± 0.075, 0.523 ± 0.072, and 0.498 ± 0.053 m for RR, RX, and XX genotypes, respectively). Muscle strength did not differ between genotype groups. This suggests that the ACTN3 gene has a greater impact on determining dynamic movements than influencing static muscle strength.