Positive regulation of immune cell function and inflammatory responses by phosphatase PAC-1.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases facilitate many cellular processes and are essential for immune cell function. Their activity is controlled by kinases and dual-specificity phosphatases. A comprehensive microarray analysis of human leukocytes identified DUSP2 (encoding the phosphatase PAC-1) as one of the most highly induced transcripts in activated immune cells. We generated Dusp2(-/-) mice and found considerably reduced inflammatory responses in the 'K/BxN' model of rheumatoid arthritis. PAC-1 deficiency led to increased activity of Jun kinase (Jnk) but unexpected impairment of the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and the kinase p38, reduced activity of the transcription factor Elk1 and a complex of mobilized transcription factor NFAT and the AP-1 transcription factor and decreased effector immune cell function. Thus, PAC-1 is a key positive regulator of inflammatory cell signaling and effector functions, mediated through Jnk and Erk mitogen-activated protein kinase crosstalk.

Thioacetamide-induced liver regeneration involves the expression of cyclooxygenase 2 and nitric oxide synthase 2 in hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: A regeneration process intended to restore organ function follows liver hepatotoxicity induced by a necrogenic dose of thioacetamide (TAM). METHODS: The expression of genes related to inflammation such as nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS-2) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) has been analyzed in the course of the regenerative response, using NOS-2 KO mice or animals treated with selective inhibitors of COX-2. RESULTS: All animals lacking both activities survived to the hepatotoxic administration. However, animals deficient for NOS-2 exhibited more severe organ damage in view of the levels of hepatic serum markers of function, as well as an attenuated activation of NF-kappaB. The levels of C/EBPs were determined as markers of hepatocyte de-differentiation and regeneration, and the expression of COX-2 in TAM treated animals was concomitant with a decrease in C/EBP-alpha level. Analysis of cyclin D1, E and PCNA correlated with hepatocytes entering into the S phase of cell cycle by the effect of TAM. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that hepatocytes from TAM-treated mice express NOS-2 and COX-2 proteins and initiate the regeneration process that follows acute liver injury. However, the absence of NO delays hepatocyte regeneration, whereas COX-2-inhibition appears to decrease liver damage.

Selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2 delay the activation of nuclear factor kappa B and attenuate the expression of inflammatory genes in murine macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide.

The effect of rofecoxib, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, on inflammatory signaling has been investigated in elicited murine peritoneal macrophages. Macrophages treated with 10 microM rofecoxib exhibited an important inhibition in the early activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) and the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38, the extracellular-regulated kinase p44, and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Moreover, this drug decreased the protein levels of nitric-oxide synthase-2 and cyclooxygenase-2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages. Rofecoxib delayed and attenuated NF-kappa B activation, which impaired significantly the expression of kappa B-dependent genes. This drug and related coxibs did not affect cell viability and protected against LPS-induced apoptosis through the impairment of the inflammatory response. These data show an additional anti-inflammatory mechanism of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors through the attenuation of macrophage activation.

Presence of methylated arginine derivatives in orthotopic human liver transplantation: relevance for liver function.

Orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) is a frequent option in the treatment of liver diseases. During the cold ischemia period of the donor liver, there is an accumulation of metabolites that are potent inhibitors of the cytokine-inducible and endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoenzymes. We identified the presence of L-N-monomethylarginine and asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) as the main inhibitors by means of analytic high-pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques. An average ADMA concentration of 450 micromol/L was measured in the preservation medium of donor livers with poor outcomes after OLT. A statistically significant relationship was observed between the concentration of methylated arginine derivatives in the graft and liver function after OLT. These data suggest that measurement of methylated arginine, released after liver protein catabolism, might provide an indication of functional status of the liver that can help the development of strategies intended to improve graft viability.

Absence of nuclear factor kappaB inhibition by NSAIDs in hepatocytes.

Stimulation of fetal hepatocytes with proinflammatory cytokines and lipopolysaccharide promotes the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS-2), whereas the hepatoma cell line HepG2 exhibits a behavior similar to that described for adult hepatocytes and only expresses NOS-2. The effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on the inflammatory onset was analyzed in these cells since in addition to the inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity, these drugs interfere with other signaling pathways related with the inflammatory response. Inhibition of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation by aspirin and salicylate has been described in many cells. However, incubation of hepatic cells with salicylate, aspirin, indomethacin, ibuprofen, or 5,5-dimethyl-3(3-fluorophenyl)-4-(4-methylsulfonyl)phenyl-2(5H)-furanone (DFU), a fluorinated derivative of rofecoxib, failed to impair IkappaB kinase activity, the processing of NF-kappaB, and the expression of NF-kappaB-dependent genes, such as NOS-2. Moreover, selective COX-2 inhibitors did not promote apoptosis in hepatocytes under inflammatory conditions, suggesting that prostaglandins are not required to maintain cell viability. In conclusion, these data indicate that hepatocytes are not sensitive to NF-kappaB inhibition by NSAIDs and that these drugs, especially the COX-2 selective inhibitors, do not alter cell viability.

Nitric oxide in liver inflammation and regeneration.

Hepatocytes express and release inflammatory mediators after challenge with bacterial cell wall molecules and proinflammatory cytokines. Nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS-2) is expressed under these conditions and the high-output NO synthesis that follows contributes to the inflammatory response in this tissue and participates in the onset of several hepatopathies. However, in the course of liver regeneration, for example, after partial hepatectomy, NOS-2 is expressed at moderate levels and contributes to inhibit apoptosis and to favor progression in the cell cycle until the organ size and function are restored. The mechanisms involved in the regulation of NOS-2 expression under these conditions are revised.