Advancements in Litchi chinensis Peel Processing: A Scientific Review of Drying, Extraction, and Isolation of Its Bioactive Compounds.

This article systematically reviews the advancements in processing litchi peel (Litchi chinensis), emphasizing drying, extraction, purification methods, and the potential of bioactive compounds obtained from litchi peel. This work also highlights the impact of various drying techniques on phytochemical profiles, focusing on how methods such as hot air and freeze-drying affect the preservation of bioactive compounds. The study delves into extraction methods, detailing how different solvents and techniques influence the efficiency of extracting bioactive compounds from litchi peel. Furthermore, the purification and characterization of active compounds, showcasing the role of chromatographic techniques in isolating specific bioactive molecules, is discussed. Biological properties and mechanisms of action, such as antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, anti-atherosclerotic, and anticancer activities, are reviewed, providing insight into the potential health benefits of litchi peel compounds. This review highlights the importance of optimizing and selecting accurate drying and extraction methods to maximize the therapeutic effects of litchi peel and its bioactive compounds. This review also reveals the broad pharmacological potential of the isolated compounds, underscoring the need for further research to discover their specific actions and health benefits.

Ethnomedicinal Study and Evaluation of the Anxiolytic-like and Diuretic Effects of the Orchid Stanhopea tigrina Bateman ex Lindl-(Orchidaceae).

Stanhopea tigrina Bateman ex Lindl. (Orchidaceae) is an orchid endemic to Mexico, known as "Calavera" or "calaverita", in the Huasteca Potosina (central region of Mexico). This plant species is used for the folk treatment of mental disorders and urological kidney disorders, according to the ethnomedicinal information obtained in this study. Ethanolic extracts of leaves (HE) and pseudobulb (PE) were obtained by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to carry out the chemical characterization of HE and PE. The pharmacological effects (antioxidant, diuretic, anxiolytic, locomotor, hypnotic, and sedative) of HE and PE were evaluated. The possible mechanism of action of the anxiolytic-like activity induced by HE was assessed using inhibitors of the GABAergic, adrenergic, and serotonergic systems. The possible mechanism of the diuretic action of HE was assessed using prostaglandin inhibitory antagonists and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) blockers. HE at 50 and 100 mg/kg exerted anxiolytic-like activity without inducing hypnosis or sedation. Flumazenil, prazosin, and ketanserin inhibited the anxiolytic-like activity shown by HE, which suggests the participation of GABA, α1-adrenergic receptors, and 5-HT2 receptors, respectively. The diuretic effect was reversed by the non-selective NOS inhibitor L-NAME, which caused the reduction in nitric oxide (NO). These results demonstrate that the ethanolic extract of S. tigrina leaves exhibited anxiolytic-like activity and diuretic effects without inducing hypnosis or sedation. This work validates the medicinal uses of this orchid species.

Bacterial Communities Associated with the Roots of Typha spp. and Its Relationship in Phytoremediation Processes.

Heavy metal pollution is a severe concern worldwide, owing to its harmful effects on ecosystems. Phytoremediation has been applied to remove heavy metals from water, soils, and sediments by using plants and associated microorganisms to restore contaminated sites. The Typha genus is one of the most important genera used in phytoremediation strategies because of its rapid growth rate, high biomass production, and the accumulation of heavy metals in its roots. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have attracted much attention because they exert biochemical activities that improve plant growth, tolerance, and the accumulation of heavy metals in plant tissues. Because of their beneficial effects on plants, some studies have identified bacterial communities associated with the roots of Typha species growing in the presence of heavy metals. This review describes in detail the phytoremediation process and highlights the application of Typha species. Then, it describes bacterial communities associated with roots of Typha growing in natural ecosystems and wetlands contaminated with heavy metals. Data indicated that bacteria from the phylum Proteobacteria are the primary colonizers of the rhizosphere and root-endosphere of Typha species growing in contaminated and non-contaminated environments. Proteobacteria include bacteria that can grow in different environments due to their ability to use various carbon sources. Some bacterial species exert biochemical activities that contribute to plant growth and tolerance to heavy metals and enhance phytoremediation.

Characterization of Endophytic Bacteria Isolated from Typha latifolia and Their Effect in Plants Exposed to Either Pb or Cd.

Plant-associated bacteria in heavy-metal-contaminated environments could be a biotechnological tool to improve plant growth. The present work aimed to isolate lead- and cadmium-tolerant endophytic bacteria from the roots of Typha latifolia growing in a site contaminated with these heavy metals. Endophytic bacteria were characterized according to Pb and Cd tolerance, plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria activities, and their effect on T. latifolia seedlings exposed and non-exposed to Pb and Cd. Pb-tolerant isolates were identified as Pseudomonas azotoformans JEP3, P. fluorescens JEP8, and P. gessardii JEP33, while Cd-tolerant bacteria were identified as P. veronii JEC8, JEC9, and JEC11. They all exert biochemical activities, including indole acetic acid synthesis, siderophore production, and phosphate solubilization. Plant-bacteria interaction assays showed that P. azotoformans JEP3, P. fluorescens JEP8, P. gessardii JEP33, and P. veronii JEC8, JEC9, JEC11 promote the growth of T. latifolia seedlings by increasing the root and shoot length, while in plants exposed to either 5 mg/L of Pb or 10 mg/L of Cd, all bacterial isolates increased the shoot length and the number of roots per plant, suggesting that they are plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria that could contribute to T. latifolia adaptation to the heavy metal polluted site.

Valorization of Sargassum Biomass as Potential Material for the Remediation of Heavy-Metals-Contaminated Waters.

Sargassum algae has become a major environmental issue due to its abundance in the Pacific Ocean with hundreds of tons reaching the beaches of the Mexican Caribbean every year. This generates large quantities of decomposing organic matter that have a negative impact on the region's economy and ecosystems. Sargassum valorization has turned out to be a fundamental aspect to mitigate its environmental impact. This study proposes the use and application of untreated Sargassum biomass for the decontamination of waters polluted with lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) through single and binary adsorption tests. Physicochemical and textural properties examined by SEM, XRD, and FT-IR elucidated that Sargassum biomass is viable to be used as a potential environmental benign adsorbent, exhibiting Cd(II) and Pb(II) adsorption capacities as high as 240 mg g-1 and 350 mg g-1, respectively, outperforming conventionally used adsorbents. This is attributed to its morphology, favorable surface charge distribution, and the presence of -OH and -COH groups. A strong affinity between the biomass and metal pollutants was evidenced by a thermodynamics study, showing a spontaneous and endothermic process. This work sets a practical route for the utilization of the Sargassum biomass, demonstrating its applicability as a potential material for heavy-metal-polluted water remediation, making a substantial contribution to a circular economy system.

Factors and Practices Associated with Self-Medicating Children among Mexican Parents.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric self-medication is based on the subjective interpretation of symptoms in children by the mother or an adult, the decision to self-medicate is made by a third party. The objective of this work is to provide information on the factors and practices associated with the self-medication of children among parents in Mexico. METHODS: A cross-sectional and descriptive study was conducted between June 2020 and December 2021 on Mexican parents with children under 12 years of age. Online questionnaires were completed with sections on sociodemographic characteristics, use of medicines or medicinal plants and their treated symptoms, sources of collection, and their recommendation. RESULTS: A total of 9905 online surveys were completed with representation from the 32 states of Mexico, and the prevalence of self-medication was 49.6% (n = 4908). Associated factors were age, having two or more children, children with chronic illnesses, medium educational level, unemployment or employment unrelated to health, medium and high socioeconomic level, and lack of medical security. Respondents self-medicated their children on the recommendation of a family member or friend (55.8%), and own initiative (28%). The most used medication was VapoRub (61.3%), followed by paracetamol (56.9%) and chamomile (33.1%), and the most prevalent symptoms were flu/flow (47.7%) followed by cough (34.2%). The main reasons were perceiving symptoms as not serious (69.9%) and reusing medications (51.9%). CONCLUSIONS: There is a high prevalence of self-medication in children in Mexico, mainly associated with children with chronic diseases and families with three or more children.

Validation of the traditional medicinal use of a Mexican endemic orchid (Prosthechea karwinskii) through UPLC-ESI-qTOF-MS/MS characterization of its bioactive compounds.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The orchid Prosthechea karwinskii is a medicinal orchid in Oaxaca, Mexico, used to treat diabetes, cough, wounds, and burns, prevent miscarriage and assist in labor. Each part of the plant (leaves, pseudobulbs, or flowers) is used by healers for certain treatment conditions, indicating that each part has different biocompounds with specific pharmacological activity. Aim of the study: To characterize the biocompounds in extracts from leaves, pseudobulbs, and flowers of P. karwinskii and evaluate their ROS inhibition capacity to associate it with medicinal uses. Materials and methods: The compounds present in extracts from leaves, pseudobulbs, and flowers of P. karwinskii were identified by UPLC-ESI-qTOF-MS/MS. The chemical differentiation of each extract was tested by principal component analysis (PCA) using compound intensity values. For each extract, total phenol and flavonoid contents were quantified. Their antioxidant capacity was evaluated ex vivo by inhibition of ROS with DCFH-DA and in vitro with DPPH radical. Results: Based on the PCA, it was observed that some compounds were completely separated from others according to the correlation that they presented. The compounds common to all three plant parts were quinic, malic, succinic, azelaic, and pinellic acids. Among the compounds identified, two were exclusive to leaves, four to pseudobulbs, and ten to flowers. Some of the identified compounds have well-known antioxidant activity. The leaves had the highest content of total phenols and flavonoids, and the highest in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant capacity. A strong correlation was observed between phenol and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant capacity ex vivo and in vitro. Conclusions: It was found that the bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of each part of the plant were associated with its traditional medicinal use. A pharmacological potential was also found in P. karwinskii for further biological studies because of the type of compounds it contained.

Enhanced Cd-Accumulation in Typha latifolia by Interaction with Pseudomonas rhodesiae GRC140 under Axenic Hydroponic Conditions.

The Typha genus comprises plant species extensively studied for phytoremediation processes. Recently, Pseudomonas rhodesiae GRC140, an IAA-producing bacterium, was isolated from Typha latifolia roots. This bacterium stimulates the emergence of lateral roots of Arabidopsis thaliana in the presence and absence of cadmium. However, the bacterial influence on cadmium accumulation by the plant has not been determined. Moreover, the P. rhodesiae GRC140 effect in Cd phytoextraction by T. latifolia remains poorly understood. In this work, an axenic hydroponic culture of T. latifolia was established. The plants were used to evaluate the effects of cadmium stress in axenic plants and determine the effects of P. rhodesiae GRC140 and exogenous indole acetic acid (IAA) on Cd tolerance and Cd uptake by T. latifolia. Biomass production, total chlorophyll content, root electrolyte leakage, catalase activity, total glutathione, and Cd content were determined. The results showed that Cd reduces shoot biomass and increases total glutathione and Cd content in a dose-dependent manner in root tissues. Furthermore, P. rhodesiae GRC140 increased Cd translocation to the shoots, while IAA increased the Cd accumulation in plant roots, indicating that both treatments increase Cd removal by T. latifolia plants. These results indicate that axenic plants in hydroponic systems are adequate to evaluate the Cd effects in plants and suggest that T. latifolia phytoextraction abilities could be improved by P. rhodesiae GRC140 and exogenous IAA application.

Evaluation of a biocoagulant from devilfish invasive species for the removal of contaminants in ceramic industry wastewater.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a biocoagulant produced from the devilfish invasive species and its combination with two chemical coagulants (aluminum sulfate and ferric sulfate) to remove turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids in ceramic industry wastewater using a combined experimental design of Mixture-Process. This design optimized the coagulation process and evaluated the effects and interactions between mixture components and coagulant doses. An analysis of variance was used to analyze the experimental data obtained in the study, and the response surface plots by response type (turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids) were obtained. Results showed that the coagulation treatment could be technically and economically feasible since efficiencies of turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids removal of 74, 79, and 94% could be achieved using an optimal coagulant dose of 800 mg/L with a mixture of 35% biocoagulant and 65% ferric sulfate. Analysis of variance results showed that the models are significant, and the lack of fit is not required according to the probability value (p value), which were < 0.0001, and > 0.05, respectively. Hence, the experimental data were fitted to a combined reduced special cubic x linear model. These results support the use of devilfish meal as a biocoagulant, being more feasible in dual systems when mixed with ferric sulfate.

Antinociceptive effects of Laelia anceps Lindl. and Cyrtopodium macrobulbon (Lex.) G.A. Romero & Carnevali, and comparative evaluation of their metabolomic profiles.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Laelia anceps and Cyrtopodium macrobulbon are two orchids used in Mexican traditional medicine for treating pain. AIM OF THE STUDY: The individual antinociceptive activity of ethanol extracts from the roots of Laelia anceps (LAE) and Cyrtopodium macrobulbon (CME) was evaluated, and their metabolomic profiles were comparatively evaluated. The antinociceptive activity of CME and naproxen combination (1:1) was also addressed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The antinociceptive actions of LAE and CME were examined using three nociceptive tests. The combination of CME with naproxen was evaluated in the acetic acid test using isobologram analysis. Metabolomic analysis was performed using capillary reversed phase liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-high resolution mass spectrometry and the MS-DIAL 4.70 software was used for data analysis and statistics. RESULTS: LAE (ED50 = 48.4 mg/kg) and CME (ED50 = 17.8 mg/kg) showed antinociceptive activity in the acetic acid test. Pre-treatment with L-NAME reverted the antinociceptive effects of LAE and CME in the acetic acid test. LAE (ED50 = 97 mg/kg) and CME (ED50 = 29 mg/kg) also induced antinociceptive activity in the second phase of the formalin test. The combination of CME with naproxen induced synergistic (interaction index = 0.434) antinociceptive effects (ED50 = 10.6 mg/kg). Overall, 156 compounds allocated in 97 different ontologies were found to be differentially expressed in the two orchids; among them, 125 compounds corresponded to LAE and 31 to CME. Three phenanthrene derivatives annotated in CME might be associated with its antinociceptive activity. CONCLUSION: LAE and CME induced antinociceptive activity with the possible participation of the nitric oxide pathway. CME in combination with naproxen synergistically produces antinociceptive effects in the acetic acid test. The untargeted metabolomic analysis allowed for annotation of several compounds potentially involved in the therapeutic potential of two plants; among them, three phenanthrene derivatives might contribute to the observed antinociceptive activity.

Ibuprofen degradation and energy generation in a microbial fuel cell using a bioanode fabricated from devil fish bone char.

Ibuprofen degradation and energy generation in a single-chamber Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) were evaluated using a bioanode fabricated from devil fish bone char (BCA) synthesized by calcination in air atmosphere. Its performance was compared with conventional carbon felt (CF). Bone char textural properties were determined by nitrogen adsorption. Before and after, the bacterial colonization on the materials was analyzed by environmental scanning electron microscopy. Energy generation was evaluated by electrochemical techniques as open-circuit potential, linear sweep voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Ibuprofen degradation was analyzed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Ultraviolet, and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal was measured. Results showed a specific area of 136 m2/g for BCA, having enough space to immobilize microorganisms. The micrographs confirmed the biofilm formation on the electrode materials. Over the 14 days, MFC with BCA reached a maximum power density of 4.26 mW/m2, 175% higher than CF, and an electron transfer resistance 2.1 times lower than it. This coincides with the COD removal and ibuprofen degradation efficiencies, which were 43.6% and 34% for BCA and 31.8% and 27% for CF. Hence, these findings confirmed that BCA in MFC could provide an alternative electrode material for ibuprofen degradation and energy generation.

Efecto de extractos orgánicos naturales sobre la micropropagación in vitro de Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews (Orchidaceae) / Effect of natural extracts on the micropropagation of Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews (Orchidaceae)

Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews es una orquídea de gran importancia económica, que presenta problemas de sobreexplotación y amenaza en su hábitat original. Por lo cual, el objetivo de esta investigación fue establecer un protocolo de micropropagación in vitro evaluando el efecto diferentes extractos orgánicos. El cultivo in vitro se inició a través de la germinación de semillas que dieron lugar a la formación de protocormos. Los protocormos se cultivaron en medios MS suplementados con extractos naturales: MPL (plátano), MPI (piña), MCO (agua de coco) y medio control, para promover la morfogénesis. Posteriormente, para inducir la rizogénesis de los brotes y la aclimatación, se utilizaron tratamientos con auxinas (AIA y AIB). Los resultados mostraron que la germinación inició a los 60 días de cultivo in vitro, y que la adición de los extractos orgánicos promovió la diferenciación de los brotes, resultando más eficiente el tratamiento MPI. Además, la adición de 0.5 mg L-1 de AIA promovió el enraizamiento y la pre aclimatación in vitro. Estos resultados sugieren que los extractos orgánicos promueven la morfogénesis de vainilla, sin necesidad de emplear reguladores de crecimiento sintéticos en las primeras etapas de la micropropagación in vitro.

Prosthechea karwinskii, an orchid used as traditional medicine, exerts anti-inflammatory activity and inhibits ROS.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Prosthechea karwinskii (Mart.) J.M.H. Shaw is a Mexican orchid used in traditional medicine by some indigenous communities to treat issues related to inflammation (cough, wounds, burns, and diabetes). Pharmacological research of this orchid could validate its therapeutic uses and demonstrate its potential for treating other health conditions of high prevalence in Mexico, including those associated with oxidative stress such as diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, and hypertension as well as inflammation. AIM OF THE STUDY: The leaf extract from P. karwinskii was examined to identify its compounds and elucidate its inhibitory effect on reactive oxygen species as well as its anti-inflammatory activity and gastroprotective effects in an animal model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Compounds were identified via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization with quadrupole time of flight-mass spectrometry. Inhibition of reactive oxygen species was determined ex vivo in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate. The anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using a carrageenan-induced paw edema model in Wistar rats; nitric oxide and tumor necrosis factor alpha levels were quantified. The gastroprotective effect was evaluated in Wistar rats with indomethacin-induced gastric injury. RESULTS: Nine compounds were identified in the P. karwinskii leaf extract. Most compounds, such as quinic acid, malic acid, neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, embelin, pinellic acid, and azelaic acid, were reported to exhibit antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory activity. The extract was also found to inhibit reactive oxygen species in the ex vivo model. Unlike other anti-inflammatory drugs, the extract exerted a dual effect: anti-inflammatory activity and protection of the gastric mucosa. The results showed that the extract could significantly inhibit the release of nitric oxide without a dose-response relationship. CONCLUSION: P. karwinskii leaf extract inhibited reactive oxygen species and exerted an anti-inflammatory effect. Moreover, this extract did not induce gastric damage in the animals. The bioactivity of the species was found to support its use in traditional medicine. This orchid could be used to treat inflammatory diseases without causing the side effects associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. It can also be employed to treat other pathological conditions associated with oxidative stress. The findings herein form the basis for the future discovery of natural products that may serve as safe alternative therapies for inflammatory disorders.

Central nervous system evaluation of an ethanol extract of Bidens odorata Cav (Asteraceae) leaves, and its antinociceptive interaction with paracetamol and naproxen.

INTRODUCTION: Bidens odorata Cav (Asteraceae) is a medicinal plant employed for the treatment of pain, anxiety, and depression. This study aimed to evaluate some neuropharmacological effects of an ethanol extract of B. odorata (BOE) and assess its antinociceptive interaction with naproxen and paracetamol. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The following neuropharmacological effects were evaluated with the ethanolic extract of B. odorata leaves (BOE) (10-200 mg/kg p.o.): the strychnine-induced-convulsion assay (anticonvulsant effect), rotarod test (locomotor activity), tail suspension test (anti-depressant-like activity), cylinder exploratory test (anxiolytic-like actions), and pentobarbital-induced sleep test (sedative effect). The interaction of the BOE-paracetamol and BOE-naproxen combinations were evaluated with the acetic acid-induced writhing test. The ED50 value of each drug was estimated and the combinations of paracetamol and naproxen with BOE were calculated. RESULTS: BOE (100-200 mg/kg) showed anti-convulsant activity by increasing the latency to occurrence of strychnine-induced convulsions, antidepressant-like effects by 28% and 33%, respectively, exerted anxiolytic actions (ED50 = 125 mg/kg), but did not affect motor locomotion. The pre-treatment with 2 mg/kg flumazenil or 20 mg/kg pentylenetetrazol partially reverted the anxiolytic activity shown by BOE alone. BOE (200 mg/kg) prolonged the duration of sleep with similar effect in comparison to clonazepam (1.5 mg/kg). The combinations of BOE-paracetamol (1:1) and BOE-naproxen (1:1) showed antinociceptive synergism. CONCLUSION: BOE induces sedative and anticonvulsant effects. The anxiolytic actions shown by BOE are probably induced by the participation of the GABAergic system. BOE exerts antinociceptive synergistic interaction with paracetamol and naproxen probably by the participation of nitric oxide and ATP-sensitive K+ channels, respectively.

Anti-inflammatory and diuretic effects of the diterpene ent-dihydrotucumanoic acid.

Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng) Less (Asteraceae) is a shrub used in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory and renal diseases. The ent-dihydrotucumanoic acid (DTA) is a diterpene obtained from G. glutinosum. This study evaluated the antioxidant, genotoxic, and diuretic properties of DTA, as well as its in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory actions. The antioxidant actions of DTA were assessed with the 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, the genotoxic action was assessed with the comet assay, and the diuretic effects of DTA were assessed using metabolic cages. The anti-inflammatory actions were evaluated using primary murine peritoneal macrophages stimulated with LPS and the λ-carrageenan-induced hind paw edema test. DTA lacked antioxidant (IC50 > 25,000 µg/mL) activity in the ABTS, FRAP, and DPPH assays. DTA at 500-1,000 µg/mL showed moderate genotoxicity. In LPS-stimulated macrophages, DTA showed IC50 values of 74.85 µg/mL (TNF-α) and 58.12 µg/mL (NO), whereas the maximum inhibition of IL-6 (24%) and IL-1ß (36%) was recorded at 200 µg/mL. DTA induced in vivo anti-inflammatory effects with ED50 = 124.3 mg/kg. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of DTA seems to be associated with the decrease in the release of TNF-α and NO. DTA promoted the excretion of urine (ED50 = 86.9 mg/kg), Na+ (ED50 = 66.7 mg/kg), and K+ (ED50 = 8.6 mg/kg). The coadministration of DTA with L-NAME decreased the urinary excretion shown by DTA alone. Therefore, the diuretic activity is probably associated with the participation of nitric oxide synthase. In conclusion, DTA exerted anti-inflammatory and diuretic effects, but lacked antioxidant effects.

Self-medication practice in pregnant women from central Mexico.

Self-medication during pregnancy represents a serious threat for mother and child health. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and the factors associated with self-medication among Mexican women living in the central region of Mexico. This is a descriptive interview-study of 1798 pregnant women or women who were pregnant no more than 3 years ago, when the interview was carried out. Data analysis was carried out with chi-square analysis and odds ratio. The prevalence of self-medication (allopathic drugs, medicinal plants, and other products, including vitamins, food supplements, among others) was 21.9%. The factors associated (p < 0.05) with self-medication were: higher education (college and postgraduate), smoking, and consumption of alcohol. Smoking was the strongest factor (OR: 2.536; 1.46-4.42) associated to self-medication during pregnancy, followed by consumption of alcohol (OR: 2.06; 1.38-3.08), and higher education (OR: 1.607; 1.18-2.19). Medicinal plant consumption was associated with nausea, constipation, migraine, and cold (p < 0.05), whereas he self-medication of allopathy was associated with gastritis and migraine (p < 0.05). Self-medication was influenced mainly by a relative or friend, who recommended the use of herbal medicine/allopathic medication. Two of the most common medicinal plants (arnica and ruda) here informed are reported to induce abortion or toxicity during pregnancy. The findings showed that self-medication (medicinal plants and allopathic medication) is a common practice among pregnant women from central Mexico. Adequate counselling of pregnant women by healthcare professionals about the potential risks of self-medication with herbal medicine and allopathic drugs during pregnancy is strongly warranted.

Pharmacological and toxicological study of a chemical-standardized ethanol extract of the branches and leaves from Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ortega) Sarg. (Fabaceae).

Eysenhardtia polystachya is used for the empirical treatment of cancer, infections, diarrhea, inflammation, and pain. This study identified, using GC-MS, the main chemical components in an ethanol extract of E. polystachya branches and leaves (EPE) and tested its cytotoxic, antimicrobial, anti-diarrheal, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects. The in vitro and in vivo toxicity of EPE was evaluated using the comet assay in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and the acute toxicity test in mice, respectively. The cytotoxic and the antimicrobial effects were performed using the MTT assay and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test, respectively. The levels of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated macrophages were measured to evaluate the in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of EPE. The antidiarrheal (castor oil test, small intestine transit, and castor oil-induced enteropooling), and anti-inflammatory activities (TPA and carrageenan) of EPE were also performed. The antinociceptive actions of EPE were carried out with the following tests: acetic acid, formalin, and hot plate. The hypnotic and locomotor effects were analyzed using pentobarbital and a rotarod system, respectively. The main component in EPE was D-pinitol (26.93%). The antidiarrheal and antinociceptive effects of D-pinitol were also evaluated. EPE showed low in vitro toxicity (DNA damage in PBMC at concentrations higher than 200 µg/ml), and low in vivo toxicity (LD50 > 2000 mg/kg i.p. and p.o.). Furthermore, EPE lacked cytotoxic activity (IC50 > 300 µg/ml) on human cancer cells, but showed good antimicrobial effects in E. coli (MIC=1.56 µg/ml) and S. aureus (MIC = 0.78 µg/ml). In multi-drug resistant microorganisms, EPE showed MIC> 100 µg/ml. EPE exerted in vitro anti-inflammatory effects, mainly, by the decrease in the production of H2O2 (IC50 = 43.9 ±â€¯3.8 µg/ml), and IL-6 (73.3 ±â€¯6.9 µg/ml). EPE (ED50 =7.5 ±â€¯0.9 mg/kg) and D-pinitol (ED50 = 0.1 ±â€¯0.03 mg/kg) showed antidiarrheal activity, and antinociceptive effects in the acetic acid test with ED50 = 117 ±â€¯14.5 mg/kg for EPE and 33 ±â€¯3.2 mg/kg for D-pinitol. EPE showed also antinociceptive activity in the phase 2 of the formalin test (ED50 = 48.9 ±â€¯3.9 mg/kg), without inducing hypnotic effects or altering the locomotor activity in mice. The results here presented corroborate the folk medicinal use of Eysenhardtia polystachya in the treatment of infections, diarrhea, inflammation, and pain. D-pinitol, the main metabolite of EPE, showed antinociceptive and antidiarrheal effects with similar potency compared to standard drugs.

Chemical characterization, pharmacological effects, and toxicity of an ethanol extract of Celtis pallida Torr. (Cannabaceae) aerial parts.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Celtis pallida Torr (Cannabaceae) is employed as a folk medicine for the treatment of inflammation, pain, skin infections, and diarrhea, among other diseases. AIM OF THE STUDY: The purpose of this work was to assess the chemical composition, the in vitro and in vivo toxicity, the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, antinociceptive, locomotor, and sedative effects of an ethanolic extract obtained from Celtis pallida aerial parts (CPE). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The composition of CPE was carried out by GC-MS. The in vitro and in vivo toxic activity of CPE was estimated with the comet assay (10-1000 µg/ml) for 5 h in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and the acute toxicity test (500-5000 mg/kg p.o.), for 14 days, respectively. The antimicrobial effect of CPE was evaluated using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay, whereas the antidiarrheal activity (10-200 mg/kg p.o.) was calculated using the castor oil test. The antinociceptive effects of CPE (50-200 mg/kg p.o.) were estimated with the acetic acid and formalin tests, as well as the hot plate test. The sedative and locomotor activities of CPE (50-200 mg/kg p.o.) were assessed with the pentobarbital-induced sleeping time test and the rotarod test, respectively. RESULTS: The main compound found in CPE was the triterpene ursolic acid (22% of the extract). CPE at concentrations of 100 µg/ml or higher induced genotoxicity in vitro and showed low in vivo toxicity (LD50 > 5000 mg/kg p.o.). Additionally, CPE lacked (MIC > 400 µg/ml) antimicrobial activity but exerts antinociceptive (ED50 = 12.5 ±â€¯1.5 mg/kg) and antidiarrheal effects (ED50 = 2.8 mg/kg), without inducing sedative effects or altering the locomotor activity. The antinociceptive activity of CPE suggests the participation of adrenoceptors, as well as the nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway. CONCLUSION: C. pallida exerts its antinociceptive effects probably mediated by the nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway.

Medicinal Plants from North and Central America and the Caribbean Considered Toxic for Humans: The Other Side of the Coin.

The consumption of medicinal plants has notably increased over the past two decades. People consider herbal products as safe because of their natural origin, without taking into consideration whether these plants contain a toxic principle. This represents a serious health problem. A bibliographic search was carried out using published scientific material on native plants from Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, which describe the ethnobotanical and toxicological information of medicinal plants empirically considered to be toxic. A total of 216 medicinal plants belonging to 77 families have been reported as toxic. Of these plants, 76 had been studied, and 140 plants lacked studies regarding their toxicological effects. The toxicity of 16 plants species has been reported in clinical cases, particularly in children. From these plants, deaths have been reported with the consumption of Chenopodium ambrosioides, Argemone mexicana, and Thevetia peruviana. In most of the cases, the principle of the plant responsible for the toxicity is unknown. There is limited information about the toxicity of medicinal plants used in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. More toxicological studies are necessary to contribute information about the safe use of the medicinal plants cited in this review.

The antinociceptive effects of a standardized ethanol extract of the Bidens odorata Cav (Asteraceae) leaves are mediated by ATP-sensitive K+ channels.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Bidens odorata Cav (Asteraceae) is used for the empirical treatment of inflammation and pain. AIM OF THE STUDY: This work evaluated the in vitro and in vivo toxicity, antioxidant activity, as well as the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of an ethanol extract from Bidens odorata leaves (BOE). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The in vitro toxicity of BOE (10-1000µg/ml) was evaluated with the comet assay in PBMC. The in vivo acute toxicity of BOE (500-5000mg/kg) and the effect of BOE (10-1000µg/ml) on the level of ROS in PBMC were determined. The in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of BOE was assessed using the TPA-induced ear edema in mice. The antinociceptive activities of BOE (50-200mg/kg p.o.) were assessed using the acetic acid and formalin tests. The antinociceptive mechanism of BOE was determined using naloxone and glibenclamide. RESULTS: BOE lacked DNA damage, and showed low in vivo toxicity (LD50 > 5000mg/kg p.o.). BOE inhibited ROS production (IC50 = 252.13 ± 20.54µg/ml), and decreased inflammation by 36.1 ± 3.66%. In both antinociceptive test, BOE (200mg/kg) exerted activity with similar activity than the reference drugs. CONCLUSION: B. odorata exerts low in vitro and in vivo toxicity, antioxidant effects, moderate in vivo anti-inflammatory activity, and antinociceptive effects mediated by ATP-sensitive K+ channels.