Synucleinopathies: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors.

α-Synucleinopathies are a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by alterations in α-synuclein (α-syn), a protein associated with membrane phospholipids, whose precise function in normal cells is still unknown. These kinds of diseases are caused by multiple factors, but the regulation of the α-syn gene is believed to play a central role in the pathology of these disorders; therefore, the α-syn gene is one of the most studied genes. α-Synucleinopathies are complex disorders that derive from the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Here, we offer an update on the landscape of the epigenetic regulation of α-syn gene expression that has been linked with α-synucleinopathies. We also delve into the reciprocal influence between epigenetic modifications and other factors related to these disorders, such as posttranslational modifications, microbiota participation, interactions with lipids, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, to promote α-syn aggregation by acting on the transcription and/or translation of the α-syn gene.

Transcranial Focal Electric Stimulation Avoids P-Glycoprotein Over-Expression during Electrical Amygdala Kindling and Delays Epileptogenesis in Rats.

Recent evidence suggests that P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression mediates hyperexcitability and is associated with epileptogenesis. Transcranial focal electrical stimulation (TFS) delays epileptogenesis and inhibits P-gp overexpression after a generalized seizure. Here, first we measured P-gp expression during epileptogenesis and second, we assessed if TFS antiepileptogenic effect was related with P-gp overexpression avoidance. Male Wistar rats were implanted in right basolateral amygdala and stimulated daily for electrical amygdala kindling (EAK), P-gp expression was assessed during epileptogenesis in relevant brain areas. Stage I group showed 85% increase in P-gp in ipsilateral hippocampus (p < 0.001). Stage III group presented 58% and 57% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.05). Kindled group had 92% and 90% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.01), and 93% and 143% increase in both neocortices (p < 0.01). For the second experiment, TFS was administrated daily after each EAK stimulation for 20 days and P-gp concentration was assessed. No changes were found in the TFS group (p > 0.05). Kindled group showed 132% and 138% increase in P-gp in both hippocampi (p < 0.001) and 51% and 92% increase in both cortices (p < 0.001). Kindled + TFS group presented no changes (p > 0.05). Our experiments revealed that progression of EAK is associated with increased P-gp expression. These changes are structure-specific and dependent on seizure severity. EAK-induced P-gp overexpression would be associated with neuronal hyperexcitability and thus, epileptogenesis. P-gp could be a novel therapeutical target to avoid epileptogenesis. In accordance with this, TFS inhibited P-gp overexpression and interfered with EAK. An important limitation of the present study is that P-gp neuronal expression was not evaluated under the different experimental conditions. Future studies should be carried out to determine P-gp neuronal overexpression in hyperexcitable networks during epileptogenesis. The TFS-induced lessening of P-gp overexpression could be a novel therapeutical strategy to avoid epileptogenesis in high-risk patients.

Inhibition of VEGFR-2 by SU5416 increases neonatally glutamate-induced neuronal damage in the cerebral motor cortex and hippocampus.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) exerts neuroprotective or proinflammatory effects, depending on what VEGF forms (A-E), receptor types (VEGFR1-3), and intracellular signaling pathways are involved. Neonatal monosodium glutamate (MSG) treatment triggers neuronal death by excitotoxicity, which is commonly involved in different neurological disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of VEGFR-2 inhibition on neuronal damage triggered by excitotoxicity in the cerebral motor cortex (CMC) and hippocampus (Hp) after neonatal MSG treatment. MSG was administered at a dose of 4 g/kg of body weight (b.w.) subcutaneously on postnatal days (PD) 1, 3, 5, and 7, whereas the VEGFR-2 inhibitor SU5416 was administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg b.w. subcutaneously on PD 5 and 7, 30 min before the MSG treatment. Neuronal damage was assessed using hematoxylin and eosin staining, fluoro-Jade staining, and TUNEL assay. Additionally, western blot assays for some proteins of the VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling pathway (VEGF-A, VEGFR-2, PI3K, Akt, and iNOS) were carried out. All assays were performed on PD 6, 8, 10, and 14. Inhibition of VEGFR-2 signaling by SU5416 increases the neuronal damage induced by neonatal MSG treatment in both the CMC and Hp. Moreover, neonatal MSG treatment increased the expression levels of the studied VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling pathway proteins, particularly in the CMC. We conclude that VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 signaling pathway activation could be part of the neuroprotective mechanisms that attempt to compensate for neuronal damage induced by neonatal MSG treatment and possibly also in other conditions involving excitotoxicity.

Protein expression of P-glycoprotein in neocortex from patients with frontal lobe epilepsy.

Frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) is the second most frequent type of epilepsy and the surgical outcome depends on the etiology. For instance, patients with posttraumatic FLE (PTE) have a worse surgical outcome compared to patients with FLE related to a tumoral lesion (TL). The present study focuses to determine if the FLE etiology is associated with the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression, a condition associated with drug resistance. P-gp expression and cellular localization were determined by Western Blot and immunohistochemical experiments in cortical brain samples obtained from patients with PTE (n = 5), TL (n = 5), and autopsies (n = 5). The neuronal count was estimated by Nissl and stereology procedure. Results showed that the autopsies tissue showed a neuronal count of 3514 ± 304.2 neurons per mm3. The P-gp expression ratio was 0.33 ± 0.02. Its expression was found in endothelial cells. Negligible P-gp expression was detected in neurons and astrocytes. Compared to the autopsies group, the TL group showed no changes in the neuronal count but, there was a decreased P-gp expression ratio (46%, p < 0.05). P-gp was located mainly in neurons, slight in astroglial, and endothelial cells. The PTE group showed a similar P-gp expression ratio compared to the autopsies group. P-gp was expressed in neurons, astrocytes, and endothelial cells in these samples. However, experiments revealed a high P-gp expression in a lower neuronal count (38%, p < 0.05 vs autopsy group). The present study reveals that patients with PTE present neuronal P-gp overexpression. This finding could underlie their worst surgical outcome.

Noninvasive transcranial focal stimulation affects the convulsive seizure-induced P-glycoprotein expression and function in rats.

Transcranial focal stimulation (TFS) is a noninvasive neuromodulation strategy that reduces seizure activity in different experimental models. Nevertheless, there is no information about the effects of TFS in the drug-resistant phenotype associated with P-glycoprotein (Pgp) overexpression. The present study focused on determining the effects of TFS on Pgp expression after an acute seizure induced by 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA). P-glycoprotein expression was analyzed by western blot in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats receiving 5 min of TFS (300 Hz, 50 mA, 200 µs, biphasic charge-balanced squared pulses) using a tripolar concentric ring electrode (TCRE) prior to administration of a single dose of MPA. An acute administration of MPA induced Pgp overexpression in cortex (68 ±â€¯13.4%, p < 0.05 vs the control group) and hippocampus (48.5 ±â€¯14%, p < 0.05, vs the control group). This effect was avoided when TFS was applied prior to MPA. We also investigated if TFS augments the effects of phenytoin in an experimental model of drug-resistant seizures induced by repetitive MPA administration. Animals with MPA-induced drug-resistant seizures received TFS alone or associated with phenytoin (75 mg/kg, i.p.). TFS alone did not modify the expression of the drug-resistant seizures. However, TFS combined with phenytoin reduced seizure intensity, an effect associated with a lower prevalence of major seizures (50%, p = 0.03 vs phenytoin alone). Our experiments demonstrated that TFS avoids the Pgp overexpression induced after an acute convulsive seizure. In addition, TFS augments the phenytoin effects in an experimental model of drug-resistant seizures. According with these results, it is indicated that TFS may represent a new neuromodulatory strategy to revert the drug-resistant phenotype.

Expression of VEGF- and tight junction-related proteins in the neocortical microvasculature of patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) maintains the optimal microenvironment for brain function. Tight junctions (TJs) allow endothelial cells to adhere to each other, leading to the formation of a barrier that prevents the penetration of most molecules via transcellular routes. Evidence has indicated that seizure-induced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) type 2 receptor (VEGFR-2) pathway activation weakens TJs, inducing vasodilatation and increasing vascular permeability and subsequent brain injury. The present study focused on investigating the expression levels of VEGF-related (VEGF-A and VEGFR-2) and TJ-related proteins (claudin-5, occludin and ZO-1) in the neocortical microvasculature of patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). The results obtained from hippocampal sclerosis TLE (HS-TLE) patients were compared with those obtained from patients with TLE secondary to lesions (lesion-TLE) and autopsy samples. The Western blotting and immunofluorescence results showed that VEGF-A and VEGFR-2 protein expression levels were increased in HS-TLE and lesion-TLE patients compared to autopsy group. On the other hand, claudin-5 expression was higher in HS-TLE patients and lesion-TLE patients than autopsies. The expression level of occludin and ZO-1 was decreased in HS-TLE patients. Our study described modifications to the integrity of the BBB that may contribute to the pathogenesis of TLE, in which the VEGF system may play an important role. We demonstrated that the same modifications were present in both HS-TLE and lesion-TLE patients, which suggests that seizures modify these systems and that they are not associated with the establishment of epilepsy.

Glutamate induced neonatal excitotoxicity modifies the expression level of EAAT1 (GLAST) and EAAT2 (GLT-1) proteins in various brain regions of the adult rat.

Glutamate-mediated excitatory synaptic signalling is primarily controlled by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs), such as EAAT1 and EAAT2, which are located mostly on astrocytes and, together, uptake more than 95 % of extracellular glutamate. Alterations in the functional expression levels of EAATs can lead to excessive extracellular glutamate accumulation, potentially triggering excitotoxicity and seizures, among other neurological disorders. Excitotoxicity induced in early developmental stages can lead to lasting changes in several neurotransmission systems, including the glutamatergic system, which could make the brain more susceptible to a second insult. In this study, the expression levels of EAAT1 (GLAST) and EAAT2 (GLT-1) proteins were assessed in the cerebral motor cortex (CMC), striatum, hippocampus and entorhinal cortex (EC) of male adult rats following the neonatal excitotoxic process triggered by monosodium glutamate (MSG)-treatment (4 g/kg of body weight at postnatal days 1,3,5 and 7, subcutaneously). Western blot analysis showed that neonatal MSG-treatment decreased EAAT1 expression levels in the CMC, striatum and hippocampus, while EAAT2 levels were increased in the striatum and EC and decreased in the CMC. Immunofluorescence staining confirmed the changes in EAAT1 and EAAT2 expression induced by neonatal MSG-treatment, which were accompanied by an increase in the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunofluorescence signalthat was particularly significant in the hippocampus. Our results show that a neonatal excitotoxic processes can induce lasting changes in the expression levels of EAAT1 and EAAT2 proteins and suggest that although astrogliosis occurs, glutamate uptake could be deficient, particularly in the CMC and hippocampus.

Endocannabinoid System and Cannabinoid 1 Receptors in Patients With Pharmacoresistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and Comorbid Mood Disorders.

Experimental evidence points out that the activation of the endocannabinoid system induces neuroprotective effects and reduces mood disorders. In the hippocampus of patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE), studies indicated augmented cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) binding, in spite of its low mRNA and protein expressions. Although this situation suggests an enhanced CB1R-induced neurotransmission in patients with MTLE, especially those with pharmacoresistant seizures, which present important neuronal damage and high comorbid mood disorders. The present study focused to investigate the status of CB1R and the endocannabinoid system by obtaining CB1R-induced G-protein signaling efficacy and measuring the tissue levels of endocannabinoids in the hippocampus and the temporal neocortex of patients with pharmacoresistant MTLE. Furthermore, the obtained results were correlated with comorbid anxiety and depression. The experiments revealed that patients with MTLE present increased CB1R-induced G-protein signaling efficacy (Emax) as well as an augmented tissue content of anandamide and oleoylethanolamine and low 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Some of these changes were more evident in patients with MTLE without mood disorders. The current findings indicate that pharmacoresistant MTLE is associated with increased CB1R-induced transductional mechanisms as well as augmented tissue content of specific endocannabinoids in the hippocampus and the temporal neocortex. The enhanced endocannabinoid neurotransmission may be involved in the absence of comorbid mood disorders in some patients with MTLE.

Neonatal excitotoxicity modifies blood-brain barrier properties increasing its susceptibility to hypertonic shock in adulthood.

Early responses to a neurological excitotoxic process include blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment and overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), but the long-term effects of excitotoxicity on the BBB properties remain unknown. To assess this, we induced an excitotoxic process on male rats by neonatal monosodium glutamate (MSG) treatment. At postnatal day (PD) 60, we measured the expression level of structural proteins of the BBB and the VEGF type-2 receptor (VEGFR-2) protein in the cerebral motor cortex (CMC), striatum (STR), hippocampus (Hp), entorhinal cortex (Ent), and hypothalamus (Hyp). We also measured BBB permeability in the same cerebral regions. Neonatal MSG treatment significantly reduced the protein expression level of claudin-5 in the CMC, and of ZO-1 in the CMC and Hp, and increased the expression level of plasmalemmal vesicle-associated protein in the CMC, and of VEGFR-2 in all regions except for the Hyp. BBB permeability was significantly higher in all studied regions of MSG-treated animals after hypertonic shock (HS). The increased BBB permeability observed in the MSG-treated animals after HS was reversed by VEGFR-2 inhibition with SU5416. We conclude that neonatal excitotoxicity leads to lasting impairment on BBB properties in adulthood, increasing its susceptibility to HS that could be regulated by VEGFR-2 activity inhibition.

Drug-Resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Alters the Expression and Functional Coupling to Gαi/o Proteins of CB1 and CB2 Receptors in the Microvasculature of the Human Brain.

Cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2, respectively) play an important role in maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). On the other hand, BBB dysfunction is a common feature in drug-resistant epilepsy. The focus of the present study was to characterize protein expression levels and Gαi/o protein-induced activation by CB1 and CB2 receptors in the microvascular endothelial cells (MECs) isolated from the brain of patients with drug-resistant mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (DR-MTLE). MECs were isolated from the hippocampus and temporal neocortex of 12 patients with DR-MTLE and 12 non-epileptic autopsies. Immunofluorescence experiments were carried out to determine the localization of CB1 and CB2 receptors in the different cell elements of MECs. Protein expression levels of CB1 and CB2 receptors were determined by Western blot experiments. [35S]-GTPγS binding assay was used to evaluate the Gαi/o protein activation induced by specific agonists. Immunofluorescent double-labeling showed that CB1 and CB2 receptors colocalize with tight junction proteins (claudin-5, occludin, and zonula occludens-1), glial fibrillary acidic protein and platelet-derived growth factor receptor-ß. These results support that CB1 and CB2 receptors are expressed in the human isolated microvessels fragments consisting of MECs, astrocyte end feet, and pericytes. The hippocampal microvasculature of patients with DR-MTLE presented lower protein expression of CB1 and CB2 receptors (66 and 43%, respectively; p < 0.001). However, its Gαi/o protein activation was with high efficiency (CB1, 251%, p < 0.0008; CB2, 255%, p < 0.0001). Microvasculature of temporal neocortex presented protein overexpression of CB1 and CB2 receptors (35 and 41%, respectively; p < 0.01). Their coupled Gαi/o protein activation was with higher efficiency for CB1 receptors (103%, p < 0.006), but lower potency (p < 0.004) for CB2 receptors. The present study revealed opposite changes in the protein expression of CB1 and CB2 receptors when hippocampus (diminished expression of CB1 and CB2) and temporal neocortex (increased expression of CB1 and CB2) were compared. However, the exposure to specific CB1 and CB2 agonists results in high efficiency for activation of coupled Gαi/o proteins in the brain microvasculature of patients with DR-MTLE. CB1 and CB2 receptors with high efficiency could represent a therapeutic target to maintain the integrity of the BBB in patients with DR-MTLE.

Increased protein expression of VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGF-C and their receptors in the temporal neocortex of pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy patients.

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) system has been shown to play a crucial role in several neuropathological processes. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common focal epilepsy type in adult humans. We assessed the protein expression levels of VEGF-A, VEGF-B, and VEGF-C, their specific receptors VEGFR-2 and -3, their accessory receptors neuropilins 1 and 2, and PI3 and Akt kinases, in temporal neocortex from pharmacoresistant TLE (PR-TLE) patients and control subjects by western blotting. All proteins were found to be significantly overexpressed in samples of PR-TLE patients, indicating that the VEGF system contributes to PR-TLE pathogenesis and should be further studied.

Glutamate Neonatal Excitotoxicity Modifies VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 Protein Expression Profiles During Postnatal Development of the Cerebral Cortex and Hippocampus of Male Rats.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) exerts both neuroprotective and proinflammatory effects in the brain, depending on the VEGF (A-E) and VEGF receptor (VEGFR1-3) types involved. Neonatal monosodium glutamate (MSG) treatment triggers an excitotoxic degenerative process associated with several neuropathological conditions, and VEGF messenger RNA (mRNA) expression is increased at postnatal day (PD) 14 in rat hippocampus (Hp) following the treatment. The aim of this work was to establish the changes in immunoreactivity to VEGF-A, VEGF-B, VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 proteins induced by neonatal MSG treatment (4 g/kg, subcutaneous, at PD1, 3, 5 and 7) in the cerebral motor cortex (CMC) and Hp. Samples collected from PD2 to PD60 from control and MSG-treated male Wistar rats were assessed by western blotting for each protein. Considering that immunoreactivity measured by western blotting is related to the protein expression level, we found that each protein in each cerebral region has a specific expression profile throughout the studied ages, and all profiles were differentially modified by MSG. Specifically, neonatal MSG treatment significantly increased the immunoreactivity to the following: (1) VEGF-A at PD8-PD10 in the CMC and at PD6-PD8 in the Hp; (2) VEGF-B at PD2, PD6 and PD10 in the CMC and at PD8-PD9 in the Hp; and (3) VEGFR-2 at PD6-PD8 in the CMC and at PD21-PD60 in the Hp. Also, MSG significantly reduced the immunoreactivity to the following: (1) VEGF-B at PD8-PD9 and PD45-PD60 in the CMC; and (2) VEGFR-1 at PD4-PD6 and PD14-PD21 in the CMC and at PD4, PD9-PD10 and PD60 in the Hp. Our results indicate that VEGF-mediated signalling is involved in the excitotoxic process triggered by neonatal MSG treatment and should be further characterized.