Mainstreaming Flora Conservation Strategies into the Mitigation Hierarchy to Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment.

The application of the mitigation hierarchy (MH) to mining projects is challenging in situations of locational overlap between endemic flora and mineral deposits. We review flora surveys conducted in connection with the environmental impact assessment of several iron ore mining projects in an area of high degree of endemism in Eastern Amazon to discuss the practical implications of anticipating conservation strategies. Desktop studies and secondary data review were conducted to guide field searches to determine the distribution of endemic flora, resulting in 45 out of 46 endemic plant species having their known distribution extended to new areas. A framework for positioning flora conservation strategies in the MH is presented. Specific habitat requirements and scarce knowledge about endangered and endemic flora species are a conservation obstacle, since essential information to define species conservation strategies may be lacking. We show that anticipating conservation strategies can minimize time-lag uncertainties related to restoration success and biodiversity offsets. The more effort is placed in the preventative steps of the MH, the smaller the time-lag between impact (biodiversity losses) and conservation outcomes (biodiversity gains), decreasing uncertainties and reducing risks to biodiversity.

Conservation implications of genetic structure in the narrowest endemic quillwort from the Eastern Amazon.

The quillwort Isoëtes cangae is a critically endangered species occurring in a single lake in Serra dos Carajás, Eastern Amazon. Low genetic diversity and small effective population sizes (N e) are expected for narrow endemic species (NES). Conservation biology studies centered in a single species show some limitations, but they are still useful considering the limited time and resources available for protection of species at risk of extinction. Here, we evaluated the genetic diversity, population structure, N e, and minimum viable population (MVP) of I. cangae to provide information for effective conservation programs. Our analyses were based on 55 individuals collected from the Amendoim Lake and 35,638 neutral SNPs. Our results indicated a single panmictic population, moderate levels of genetic diversity, and N e in the order of thousands, contrasting the expected for NES. Negative FIS values were also found, suggesting that I. cangae is not under risk of inbreeding depression. Our findings imply that I. cangae contains enough genetic diversity to ensure evolutionary potential and that all individuals should be treated as one demographic unit. These results provide essential information to optimize ex situ conservation efforts and genetic diversity monitoring, which are currently applied to guide I. cangae conservation plans.

Seed Functional Traits Provide Support for Ecological Restoration and ex situ Conservation in the Threatened Amazon Ironstone Outcrop Flora.

Cangas (ironstone outcrops) host a specialized flora, characterized by high degree of edaphic endemism and an apparent lack of natural history knowledge of its flora. Due to intense pressure from iron ore mining this ecosystem is under threat and in need of restoration. We studied seed functional traits that are relevant for restoration, translocation and ex situ conservation in 48 species from cangas in eastern Amazon. Were determined the thermal niche breadth, classified seed dormancy and determined methods to overcome it, determined the effect of seed storage on germination, tested the association between germination traits and functional groups, and tested whether seed traits are phylogenetically conserved. We found a broad interspecific variation in most seed traits, except for seed water content. Large interspecific variation in the temperature niche breadth was found among the studied species, but only four species, showed optimum germination at high temperatures of 35-40°C, despite high temperatures under natural conditions. Only 35% of the studied species produced dormant seeds. Mechanical scarification was effective in overcoming physical dormancy and application of gibberellic acid was effective in overcoming physiological dormancy in five species. For the 29 species that seeds were stored for 24 months, 76% showed decreases in the germination percentage. The weak association between germination traits and life-history traits indicate that no particular plant functional type requires specific methods for seed-based translocations. Exceptions were the lianas which showed relatively larger seeds compared to the other growth-forms. Dormancy was the only trait strongly related to phylogeny, suggesting that phylogenetic relatedness may not be a good predictor of regeneration from seeds in cangas. Our study provides support to better manage seed sourcing, use, storage and enhancement techniques with expected reduced costs and increased seedling establishment success.

Geography is essential for reproductive isolation between florally diversified morning glory species from Amazon canga savannahs.

The variety, relative importance and eco-evolutionary stability of reproductive barriers are critical to understanding the processes of speciation and species persistence. Here we evaluated the strength of the biotic prezygotic and postzygotic isolation barriers between closely related morning glory species from Amazon canga savannahs. The flower geometry and flower visitor assemblage analyses supported pollination by the bees in lavender-flowered Ipomoea marabaensis and recruitment of hummingbirds as pollinators in red-flowered Ipomoea cavalcantei. Nevertheless, native bee species and alien honeybees foraged on flowers of both species. Real-time interspecific hybridization underscored functionality of the overlap in flower visitor assemblages, questioning the strength of prezygotic isolation underpinned by diversification in flower colour and geometry. Interspecific hybrids were fertile and produced offspring in nature. No significant asymmetry in interspecific hybridization and hybrid incompatibilities among offspring were found, indicating weak postmating and postzygotic isolation. The results suggested that despite floral diversification, the insular-type geographic isolation remains a major barrier to gene flow. Findings set a framework for the future analysis of contemporary evolution of plant-pollinator networks at the population, community, and ecosystem levels in tropical ecosystems that are known to be distinct from the more familiar temperate climate models.

Quillworts from the Amazon: A multidisciplinary populational study on Isoetes serracarajensis and Isoetes cangae.

Isoetes are ancient quillworts members of the only genus of the order Isoetales. The genus is slow evolving but is resilient, and widespread worldwide. Two recently described species occur in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon, Isoetes serracarajensis and Isoetes cangae. They are found in the ironstone grasslands known as Canga. While I. serracarajensis is present mostly in seasonal water bodies, I. cangae is known to occur in a single permanent lake at the South mountain range. In this work, we undertake an extensive morphological, physiological and genetic characterization of both species to establish species boundaries and better understand the morphological and genetic features of these two species. Our results indicate that the morphological differentiation of the species is subtle and requires a quantitative assessment of morphological elements of the megaspore for diagnosis. We did not detect differences in microspore output, but morphological peculiarities may establish a reproductive barrier. Additionally, genetic analysis using DNA barcodes and whole chloroplast genomes indicate that although the plants are genetically very similar both approaches provide diagnostic characters. There was no indication of population structuring I. serracarajensis. These results set the basis for a deeper understanding of the evolution of the Isoetes genus.

Natural history of the narrow endemics Ipomoea cavalcantei and I. marabaensis from Amazon Canga savannahs.

Amazon comprises a vast variety of ecosystems, including savannah-like Canga barrens that evolved on iron-lateritic rock plateaus of the Carajás Mountain range. Individual Cangas are enclosed by the rain forest, indicating insular isolation that enables speciation and plant community differentiation. To establish a framework for the research on natural history and conservation management of endemic Canga species, seven chloroplast DNA loci and an ITS2 nuclear DNA locus were used to study natural molecular variation of the red flowered Ipomoea cavalcantei and the lilac flowered I. marabaensis. Partitioning of the nuclear and chloroplast gene alleles strongly suggested that the species share the most recent common ancestor, pointing a new independent event of the red flower origin in the genus. Chloroplast gene allele analysis showed strong genetic differentiation between Canga populations, implying a limited role of seed dispersal in exchange of individuals between Cangas. Closed haplotype network topology indicated a requirement for the paternal inheritance in generation of cytoplasmic genetic variation. Tenfold higher nucleotide diversity in the nuclear ITS2 sequences distinguished I. cavalcantei from I. marabaensis, implying a different pace of evolutionary changes. Thus, Canga ecosystems offer powerful venues for the study of speciation, multitrait adaptation and the origins of genetic variation.

Canga biodiversity, a matter of mining.

Brazilian name canga refers to the ecosystems associated with superficial iron crusts typical for the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais (MG) and some parts of Amazon (Flona de Carajas). Iron stone is associated with mountain plateaux and so, in addition to high metal concentrations (particularly iron and manganese), canga ecosystems, as other rock outcrops, are characterized by isolation and environmental harshness. Canga inselbergs, all together, occupy no more than 200 km(2) of area spread over thousands of km(2) of the Iron Quadrangle (MG) and the Flona de Carajas, resulting in considerable beta biodiversity. Moreover, the presence of different microhabitats within the iron crust is associated with high alpha biodiversity. Hundreds of angiosperm species have been reported so far across remote canga inselbergs and different micro-habitats. Among these are endemics such as the cactus Arthrocereus glaziovii and the medicinal plant Pilocarpus microphyllus. Canga is also home to iron and manganese metallophytes; species that evolved to tolerate high metal concentrations. These are particularly interesting to study metal homeostasis as both iron and manganese are essential plant micro-elements. Besides being models for metal metabolism, metallophytes can be used for bio-remediation of metal contaminated sites, and as such are considered among priority species for canga restoration. "Biodiversity mining" is not the only mining business attracted to canga. Open cast iron mining generates as much as 5-6% of Brazilian gross domestic product and dialog between mining companies, government, society, and ecologists, enforced by legal regulation, is ongoing to find compromise for canga protection, and where mining is unavoidable for ecosystem restoration. Environmental factors that shaped canga vegetation, canga biodiversity, physiological mechanisms to play a role, and ways to protect and restore canga will be reviewed.

Evaluating the nodulation status of leguminous species from the Amazonian forest of Brazil.

Numerous leguminous species are used or have potential uses for timber production, pharmacological products, or land reclamation. Through N(2)-fixation, many leguminous trees contribute to the N-balance of tropical wetlands and rainforests. Therefore, studies of the N(2)-fixation ability of leguminous species appear to be crucial for the better use and conservation of these resources. The global nodulation inventory in the Leguminosae family is constantly being enriched with new records, suggesting the existence of undiscovered nodulated species, especially in tropical natural ecosystems and other hot spots of biodiversity. In this respect, the nodulation of leguminous species from the Amazonian forest of Porto Trombetas (Brazil) was surveyed. Overall, 199 leguminous species from flooded and non-flooded areas, were examined for their nodulation status by combining field observations, seedling inoculations, and screening of N(2)-fixing bacterial strains from the collected nodules. The results revealed a tendency for a higher relative frequency of nodulation in the species from the flooded areas (74%) compared with those from the non-flooded areas (67%). Nodulation was observed in the Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, and Papilionoideae, with 25, 88, and 84% of the examined species in each subfamily, respectively. Of the 137 nodulated leguminous species, 32 including three Caesalpinoideae, 19 Mimosoideae, and 10 Papilionoideae are new records. One new nodulated genus (Cymbosema) was found in the Papilionoideae. Twelve non-nodulating leguminous species were also observed for the first time. The results are discussed based on the systematics of the Leguminosae family and the influence of available nutrients to the legume-bacteria symbiosis.

Impact of a gall midge Parkiamyia paraensis (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) on the Amazonian plant Parkia pendula (Fabaceae)

We observed the occurrence of large numbers of galls induced by Parkiamyia paraensis (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) on the leaflets of Parkia pendula (Fabaceae) in northern Para, Brazil. We addressed two questions in this study: i) what is the proportion of attacked plants in the field, and nursery conditions?; and ii) what is the impact of galls on the host plant? An average of 86 percent of the plants were galled in the field. Galled P. pendula were distinct from healthy individuals due to their prostrated architecture and death of terminal shoots. Approximately 50 percent of the total available leaves and 35 percent leaflets were attacked by P. paraensis on saplings under nursery conditions. Each one-year old plant supported an average of 1,300 galls, and an average of 60g allocated to galled tissue. Otherwise, attacked individuals were taller and heavier than healthy plants. Attacked plants weighed five times more than healthy plants. When the weight of the galls was removed, the total weight (aerial part without galls) of attacked plants was drastically reduced, indicating that most of the biomass of attacked plants was due to the attack by P. paraensis galls. Although the data indicate a paradox, as young plants attacked by the galling herbivore appear to develop more vigorously than unattacked plants, we suggest that P. paraensis negatively affect P. pendula development.

Observou-se a ocorrência de um grande número de galhas induzidas por Parkiamyia paraensis (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) nos folíolos de Parkia pendula (Fabaceae) no norte do Pará, Brasil. Este estudo foi direcionado para responder duas perguntas: i) qual é a proporção de plantas atacadas no campo e em condições de estufa? e ii) qual é o impacto das galhas na planta hospedeira? Uma média de 86 por cento das plantas apresentaram galhas no campo. Indivíduos com galhas de P. pendula eram distintos dos indivíduos saudáveis devido à arquitetura curvada e pela morte dos ramos terminais. Aproximadamente 50 por cento do total de folhas e 35 por cento dos folíolos de plantas jovens foram atacados por P. paraensis em condições de estufa. Para cada ano de idade, a planta apresentou uma média de 1.300 galhas e uma média de 60g alocadas para o tecido galhado. Indivíduos atacados eram mais altos e mais pesados que plantas saudáveis. Plantas atacadas possuíam cinco vezes mais biomassa que plantas saudáveis. Quando o peso das galhas foi removido, o peso das plantas atacadas (parte aérea sem galhas) foi drasticamente reduzido, indicando que a maior parte da biomassa de plantas atacadas foi tomada pelas galhas de P. paraensis. Embora possa existir um paradoxo, onde plantas jovens atacadas por herbívoros galhadores desenvolvam mais vigorosamente do que plantas não atacadas, sugere-se que P. paraensis afetem negativamente o desenvolvimento de P. pendula.