The Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA Responses to Hot Downhill Running Are Reduced Following a Prior Bout of Hot Downhill Running, and Occur Concurrently within Leukocytes and the Vastus Lateralis.

The leukocyte heat shock response (HSR) is used to determine individual's thermotolerance. The HSR and thermotolerance are enhanced following interventions such as preconditioning and/or acclimation/acclimatization. However, it is unclear whether the leukocyte HSR is an appropriate surrogate for the HSR in other tissues implicated within the pathophysiology of exertional heat illnesses (e.g., skeletal muscle), and whether an acute preconditioning strategy (e.g., downhill running) can improve subsequent thermotolerance. Physically active, non-heat acclimated participants were split into two groups to investigate the benefits of hot downhill running as preconditioning strategy. A hot preconditioning group (HPC; n = 6) completed two trials (HPC1HOTDOWN and HPC2HOTDOWN) of 30 min running at lactate threshold (LT) on -10% gradient in 30°C and 50% relative humidity (RH) separated by 7 d. A temperate preconditioning group (TPC; n = 5) completed 30 min running at LT on a -1% gradient in 20°C and 50% (TPC1TEMPFLAT) and 7 d later completed 30 min running at LT on -10% gradient in 30°C and 50% RH (TPC2HOTDOWN). Venous blood samples and muscle biopsies (vastus lateralis; VL) were obtained before, immediately after, 3, 24, and 48 h after each trial. Leukocyte and VL Hsp72, Hsp90α, and Grp78 mRNA relative expression was determined via RT-QPCR. Attenuated leukocyte and VL Hsp72 (2.8 to 1.8 fold and 5.9 to 2.4 fold; p < 0.05) and Hsp90α mRNA (2.9 to 2.4 fold and 5.2 to 2.4 fold; p < 0.05) responses accompanied reductions (p < 0.05) in physiological strain [exercising rectal temperature (-0.3°C) and perceived muscle soreness (~ -14%)] during HPC2HOTDOWN compared to HPC1HOTDOWN (i.e., a preconditioning effect). Both VL and leukocyte Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA increased (p < 0.05) simultaneously following downhill runs and demonstrated a strong relationship (p < 0.01) of similar magnitudes with one another. Hot downhill running is an effective preconditioning strategy which ameliorates physiological strain, soreness and Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA responses to a subsequent bout. Leukocyte and VL analyses are appropriate tissues to infer the extent to which the HSR has been augmented.

Downhill running and exercise in hot environments increase leukocyte Hsp72 (HSPA1A) and Hsp90α (HSPC1) gene transcripts.

Stressors within humans and other species activate Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA transcription, although it is unclear which environmental temperature or treadmill gradient induces the largest increase. To determine the optimal stressor for priming the Hsp system, physically active but not heat-acclimated participants (19.8 ± 1.9 and 20.9 ± 3.6 yr) exercised at lactate threshold in either temperate (20°C, 50% relative humidity; RH) or hot (30°C, 50% RH) environmental conditions. Within each condition, participants completed a flat running (temperate flat or hot flat) and a downhill running (temperate downhill or hot downhill) experimental trial in a randomized counterbalanced order separated by at least 7 days. Venous blood samples were taken immediately before (basal), immediately after exercise, and 3 and 24 h postexercise. RNA was extracted from leukocytes and RT-quantitative PCR conducted to determine Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA relative expression. Leukocyte Hsp72 mRNA was increased immediately after exercise following downhill running (1.9 ± 0.9-fold) compared with flat running (1.3 ± 0.4-fold; P = 0.001) and in hot (1.9 ± 0.6-fold) compared with temperate conditions (1.1 ± 0.5-fold; P = 0.003). Leukocyte Hsp90α mRNA increased immediately after exercise following downhill running (1.4 ± 0.8-fold) compared with flat running (0.9 ± 0.6-fold; P = 0.002) and in hot (1.6 ± 1.0-fold) compared with temperate conditions (0.9 ± 0.6-fold; P = 0.003). Downhill running and exercise in hot conditions induced the largest stimuli for leukocyte Hsp72 and Hsp90α mRNA increases.

Precooling does not improve 2,000-m rowing performance of females in hot, humid conditions.

Precooling lowers skin (Tsk) and core temperature (Tre) and can improve performance in hot conditions, but has predominantly been studied in males. This study investigated the effects of precooling on self-paced 2,000-m rowing performance, within females, in hot, humid conditions. Eight physically active females (19.9 ± 1.5 years, 66.8 ± 3.1 kg, 30.0 ± 5.0% body fat) performed 2,000-m rows in a randomized order within 3 conditions {control (CONT) (20° C, 40% relative humidity [RH]); hot (HOT) (35° C, 60% RH); precooling (PREC) (35° C, 60% RH, preceded by precooling)}. The precooling condition consisted of 20-minute precooling with a cold water shower, followed by a 2,000-m row. In contrast, CONT and HOT consisted of 20-minute passive rest in place of precooling. Tre, Tsk, and power output were recorded every 100 m of the rows. Muscle temperature (Tmu) was recorded at baseline, after 20-minute passive rest/precooling and post-row. No differences were observed between conditions for performance time (CONT, 8.89 ± 0.45 minutes; HOT, 9.01 ± 0.55 minutes; PREC, 8.87 ± 0.48 minutes; p = 0.42). Mean Tre during the row was not different between conditions (CONT, 37.8 ± 0.2° C; HOT, 37.7 ± 0.3° C; PREC, 37.5 ± 0.2° C; p = 0.12; main effect), although lower Tre was observed at 1,600 and 1,800 m in PREC compared with HOT (p ≤ 0.05). Tmu was significantly reduced after precooling (p = 0.03). Precooling did not enhance 2,000-m rowing performance, despite differences in Tre, Tsk, and Tmu. The lack of observed improvement in rowing performance after cold shower precooling may have been due to the short exercise time. An improvement in performance may have been observed using an alternate method of precooling, which has been shown to be ergogenic in other sports.

The influence of hot humid and hot dry environments on intermittent-sprint exercise performance.

PURPOSE: To examine the effect of a hot humid (HH) compared with a hot dry (HD) environment, matched for heat stress, on intermittent-sprint performance. In comparison with HD, HH environments compromise evaporative heat loss and decrease exercise tolerance. It was hypothesized that HH would produce greater physiological strain and reduce intermittent-sprint exercise performance compared with HD. METHOD: Eleven male team-sport players completed the cycling intermittent-sprint protocol (CISP) in 3 conditions, temperate (TEMP; 21.2°C ± 1.3°C, 48.6% ± 8.4% relative humidity [rh]), HH (33.7°C ± 0.5°C, 78.2% ± 2.3% rh), and HD (40.2°C ± 0.2°C, 33.1% ± 4.9% rh), with both heat conditions matched for heat stress. RESULTS: All participants completed the CISP in TEMP, but 3 failed to completed the full protocol of 20 sprints in HH and HD. Peak power output declined in all conditions (P < .05) but was not different between any condition (sprints 1-14 [N = 11]: HH 1073 ± 150 W, HD 1104 ± 127 W, TEMP, 1074± 134; sprints 15-20 [N = 8]: HH 954 ± 114 W, HD 997 ± 115 W, TEMP 993 ± 94; P > .05). Physiological strain was not significantly different in HH compared with HD, but HH was higher than TEMP (P < .05). CONCLUSION: Intermittent-sprint exercise performance of 40 min duration is impaired, but it is not different in HH and HD environments matched for heat stress despite evidence of a trend toward greater physiological strain in an HH environment.

Acute acetaminophen (paracetamol) ingestion improves time to exhaustion during exercise in the heat.

Acetaminophen (paracetamol) is a commonly used over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic and has previously been shown to improve exercise performance through a reduction in perceived pain. This study sought to establish whether its antipyretic action may also improve exercise capacity in the heat by moderating the increase in core temperature. On separate days, 11 recreationally active participants completed two experimental time-to-exhaustion trials on a cycle ergometer in hot conditions (30°C, 50% relative humidity) after ingesting a placebo control or an oral dose of acetaminophen in a randomized, double-blind design. Following acetaminophen ingestion, participants cycled for a significantly longer period of time (acetaminophen, 23 ± 15 min versus placebo, 19 ± 13 min; P = 0.005; 95% confidence interval = 90-379 s), and this was accompanied by significantly lower core (-0.15°C), skin (-0.47°C) and body temperatures (0.19°C; P < 0.05). In the acetaminophen condition, participants also reported significantly lower ratings of thermal sensation (-0.39; P = 0.015), but no significant change in heart rate was observed (P > 0.05). This is the first study to demonstrate that an acute dose of acetaminophen can improve cycling capacity in hot conditions, and that this may be due to the observed reduction in core, skin and body temperature and the subjective perception of thermal comfort. These findings suggest that acetaminophen may reduce the thermoregulatory strain elicited from exercise, thus improving time to exhaustion.

The efficacy of the self-paced V̇O2max test to measure maximal oxygen uptake in treadmill running.

The novel self-paced, cycle-based maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) test (SPV) has been shown to produce higher V̇O2max values than standard graded exercise test (GXT) protocols. This study sought to ascertain whether these observations would also be apparent in a self-paced, treadmill-based test design. Fourteen trained male runners performed a standard GXT on a motorised treadmill and a self-paced V̇O2max test on a nonmotorised treadmill in a counter-balanced design. The GXT included a plateau verification and was designed to last between 8 and 12 min. The self-paced test included 5 × 2 min stages and allowed participants to set their own running speed based on fixed increments in rating of perceived exertion. Significantly higher V̇O2max values (t[13] = 3.71, p = 0.003) were achieved in the self-paced test (64.4 ± 7.3 mL · kg(-1) · min(-1)) compared with the GXT (61.3 ± 7.3 mL · kg(-1) · min(-1)), and 13 of the 14 participants achieved the same or higher V̇O2max values in the self-paced test. Higher (p = 0.01) maximum heart rates were observed in the GXT (191 ± 10 beats · min(-1) vs. 187 ± 7 beats · min(-1)), but no differences were observed in any other recorded variables. The self-paced V̇O2max test may provide a more valid means of measuring V̇O2max than the GXT and suggests that a V̇O2 plateau during a GXT does not always signify achievement of a definitive V̇O2max. These results provide further support that self-paced V̇O2max testing produces higher values for maximal oxygen uptake.

Partial heat acclimation of athletes with spinal cord lesion.

Heat acclimation (HA) can improve thermoregulatory stability in able-bodied athletes in part by an enhanced sweat response. Athletes with spinal cord lesion are unable to sweat below the lesion and it is unknown if they can HA. Five paralympic shooting athletes with spinal cord lesion completed seven consecutive days HA in hot conditions (33.4 ± 0.6 °C, 64.8 ± 3.7 %rh). Each HA session consisted of 20 min arm crank exercise at 50 % [Formula: see text] followed by 40 min rest, or simulated shooting. Aural temperature (T (aur)) was recorded throughout. Body mass was assessed before and after each session and a sweat collection swab was fixed to T12 of the spine. Fingertip whole blood was sampled at rest on days 1 and 7 for estimation of the change in plasma volume. Resting T (aur) declined from 36.3 ± 0.2 °C on day 1 to 36.0 ± 0.2 °C by day 6 (P < 0.05). During the HA sessions mean, T (aur) declined from 37.2 ± 0.2 °C on day 1, to 36.7 ± 0.3 °C on day 7 (P < 0.05). Plasma volume increased from day 1 by 1.5 ± 0.6 % on day 7 (P < 0.05). No sweat secretion was detected or changes in body mass observed from any participant. Repeated hyperthermia combined with limited evaporative heat loss was sufficient to increase plasma volume, probably by alterations in fluid regulatory hormones. In conclusion, we found that although no sweat response was observed, athletes with spinal cord lesion could partially HA.

Peak power output provides the most reliable measure of performance in prolonged intermittent-sprint cycling.

The aims of this study were to determine the reliability of an intermittent-sprint cycling protocol and to determine the efficacy of one practice session on main trials. Eleven men, moderately trained team-sport athletes, completed three visits to the laboratory involving a graded-exercise test and practice session and two trials of a cycling intermittent-sprint Protocol separated by three days. Data for practice and main trials were analysed using typical error of measurement, intra-class correlation and least-products regression to determine reliability. Typical error of measurement (expressed as a coefficient of variation) and intra-class correlation for peak power output from all 20 sprints for trial 1 and trial 2 were 2.9 ± 12.8% (95% confidence interval: 2.0-5.0%) and 0.96 (95% confidence interval: 0.85-0.99), respectively. Typical errors of measurement and intra-class correlation for mean power output for all 20 sprints for trials 1 and 2 were 4.2 ± 11.9% (95% confidence interval: 2.9-7.4%) and 0.90 (95% confidence interval: 0.66-0.97), respectively. The results suggest that peak power output provides a more reliable measure than mean power output. The Cycling Intermittent-Sprint Protocol provides reliable measures of intermittent-sprint performance.

Analysis of pacing strategy selection in elite 400-m freestyle swimming.

INTRODUCTION: Pacing strategy selection can exert a significant influence on performance in events where time to completion is the measure of success. However, few studies exist examining pacing in elite sport, with even less examining pacing in swimming. PURPOSE: The objective of this study is to identify which type of pacing profiles are most prominently used in elite 400-m freestyle swimming. METHODS: Two hundred sixty-four swims from elite national and international competitions were analyzed in high-frequency pacing capture for mean speed (every 6% of the race). Each swim was subsequently categorized into one of six different pacing strategies through a computer algorithm and then performance analyzed in relation to completion time to the current world record, sex, and swimming suit used. RESULTS: Fast-start-even and parabolic pacing profiles were the most frequently used, irrespective of sex or swimming suit worn (120 and 89 swims, respectively). Although these strategies yielded closer performance times to the world record (96.08% ± 2.12% and 96.04% ± 2.2%, respectively) than other strategies, this difference was nonsignificant (F2,228 = 1.00, P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study using a large sample size in elite freestyle swimming to demonstrate that a fast-start-even and parabolic pacing strategy are most frequently used in elite competition. The performance benefits that these strategies may yield should be considered by coaches and athletes, with possible integration of pacing training before competition.

Deception of ambient and body core temperature improves self paced cycling in hot, humid conditions.

We used incorrect visual feedback of ambient and core temperature in the heat to test the hypothesis that deception would alleviate the decrement in cycling performance compared to a no deception trial. Seven males completed three 30 min cycling time trials in a randomised order on a Kingcycle ergometer. One time trial was in temperate, control conditions (CON: 21.8 ± 0.6°C; 43.3 ± 4.3%rh), the others in hot, humid conditions (HOT: 31.4 ± 0.3°C; 63.9 ± 4.5%rh). In one of the hot, humid conditions (31.6 ± 0.5°C; 65.4 ± 4.3%rh), participants were deceived (DEC) into thinking the ambient conditions were 26.0°C; 60.0%rh and their core temperature was 0.3°C lower than it really was. Compared to CON (16.63 ± 2.43 km) distance covered was lower in HOT (15.88 ± 2.75 km; P < 0.05), but DEC ameliorated this (16.74 ± 2.87 km; P < 0.05). Mean power output was greater in DEC (184.4 ± 60.4 W) than HOT (168.1 ± 54.1 W; P < 0.05) and no difference was observed between CON and DEC. Rectal temperature and iEMG of the vastus lateralis were not different, but RPE in the third minute was lower in DEC than HOT (P < 0.05). Deception improved performance in the heat by creating a lower RPE, evidence of a subtle mismatch between the subconscious expectation and conscious perception of the task demands.

Strength and activation of the knee musculature in Parkinson's disease: effect of medication.

The specific neuromuscular mechanisms for compromised muscle strength with PD, and the improvement that occurs with medication, have not been clearly delineated. This study assessed knee extension and flexion strength of PD patients whilst on and off medication and examined the neural mechanisms responsible for any changes. Ten idiopathic PD patients were assessed whilst on and off medication (≥ 12-h after drug withdrawal), ∼ 7 days apart. Isometric strength of the knee extensors and flexors was assessed, and the interpolated twitch technique used to measure activation of the knee extensors. Surface EMG was also used to measure neural drive to the agonists and antagonists. Without medication isometric strength of the knee extensors (7%) and flexors (11%) was impaired and the interpolated twitch technique revealed activation of the knee extensors was reduced (8%, P=0.005). Maximum agonist amplitudes for nkee extension and flexion were unchanged off-medication (0.59 P< 0.77). The agonist and antagonist EMG-force relationships, and the maximum antagonist EMG, were unaffected by medication withdrawal. The decrease in knee extension strength when PD patients were off medication was due to reduced activation of the agonist muscle, rather than any change in antagonist co-activation, and these changes were associated with reduced locomotory performance.

Absence of neuropsychological impairment in hyperammonaemia in healthy young adults; possible synergism in development of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) symptoms?

The aetiology of minimal hepatic encephalopathy (mHE) remains unclear. It is generally accepted that hyperammonaemia plays a major role, however there are a multitude of metabolic perturbations present. To determine the contribution of hyperammonaemia to mHE symptom development, ten healthy males (Age:25 ± 5 yrs, BM:76.3 ± 7.1 kg, Height:178.6 ± 4.5 cm, mean ± SD) received two 4 h intravenous infusions of either a 2% ammonium chloride solution (AMM) or a placebo (PLA;0.9% sodium chloride) using a double blind cross-over design. Sensations of fatigue were measured at baseline, 2 and 4 h using the Multidimensional Fatigue Symptom Inventory-Short Form (MFSI-SF) questionnaire. Learning & memory, motor control and cognition were assessed using Rey's Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVL), Continuous Compensatory Tracking (COMPTRACK) Task and Inhibitory Control Test (ICT) respectively. Arterialised venous blood samples were collected every hour, and analysed for ammonia concentration. There was a significantly higher plasma ammonia concentration in the AMM trial than the PLA trial at every time point during the infusion, peaking at 2 h (57 ± 4 µmol/L PLA, 225 ± 14 µmol/L AMM; p < 0.05). At 2 h there were significantly higher sensations of general fatigue (Z = -2.527, p = 0.008, 2 tailed) and physical fatigue (Z = -2.156, p = 0.027, 2 tailed), and lower sensations of vigour (Z = -2.456, p = 0.012, 2 tailed) for the AMM trial. There were no significant effects on the performance of the psychological tasks. These results demonstrate that hyperammonaemia in the absence of other complications induces significant sensations of fatigue but does not cause the typically observed performance impairment in individuals with mHE. Supporting the hypothesis for synergism between ammonia and other co-factors in mHE.

Effect of recovery intensity on peak power output and the development of heat strain during intermittent sprint exercise while under heat stress.

This study compared two intensities of active recovery on intermittent sprint exercise performance and the development of heat strain in hot, humid conditions. Eight male game players completed four Cycling Intermittent Sprint Protocols (CISP) consisting of twenty 2-min periods, each including 10-s passive rest, 5-s maximal sprint against a resistance of 7.5% body mass and 105-s active recovery. The CISP was performed in mean (S.D.) temperate conditions with active recovery intensities of 50% V(O)(2peak) (TEMP50) and 35% V(O)(2peak)(TEMP35) and in hot, humid [35.2 (0.4) degrees C, 80.4 (2.1)% RH] conditions with the same intensities (HOT50 and HOT35, respectively) in a randomised, counterbalanced order. Heat strain (physiological strain index (PSI)) was calculated from rectal temperature and heart rate. All subjects completed the CISP (20 sprints) in TEMP50 and TEMP35. The mean number of sprints completed for HOT50 and HOT35 was 13 (3) and 17 (2), respectively; both of which were lower than TEMP50 and TEMP35 (P<0.01) and different between hot conditions. Reductions in peak power output (PPO) occurred in the TEMP50 and HOT50 by sprint 8 (P<0.05), but in HOT35 a reduction was delayed until sprint 13 (P<0.05). The rate of PSI increase was faster in HOT50 than TEMP50 and HOT35, but peak PSI was not different. By lowering the recovery intensity, one component of the PSI (heart rate) was reduced and intermittent sprint exercise performance was maintained for longer in the heat.

Precooling leg muscle improves intermittent sprint exercise performance in hot, humid conditions.

We used three techniques of precooling to test the hypothesis that heat strain would be alleviated, muscle temperature (Tmu) would be reduced, and as a result there would be delayed decrements in peak power output (PPO) during exercise in hot, humid conditions. Twelve male team-sport players completed four cycling intermittent sprint protocols (CISP). Each CISP consisted of twenty 2-min periods, each including 10 s of passive rest, 5 s of maximal sprint against a resistance of 7.5% body mass, and 105 s of active recovery. The CISP, preceded by 20 min of no cooling (Control), precooling via an ice vest (Vest), cold water immersion (Water), and ice packs covering the upper legs (Packs), was performed in hot, humid conditions (mean +/- SE; 33.7 +/- 0.3 degrees C, 51.6 +/- 2.2% relative humidity) in a randomized order. The rate of heat strain increase during the CISP was faster in Control than Water and Packs (P < 0.01), but it was similar to Vest. Packs and Water blunted the rise of Tmu until minute 16 and for the duration of the CISP (40 min), respectively (P < 0.01). Reductions in PPO occurred from minute 32 onward in Control, and an increase in PPO by approximately 4% due to Packs was observed (main effect; P < 0.05). The method of precooling determined the extent to which heat strain was reduced during intermittent sprint cycling, with leg precooling offering the greater ergogenic effect on PPO than either upper body or whole body cooling.

Effects of respiratory muscle weakness on daily living function, quality of life, activity levels, and exercise capacity in mild to moderate Parkinson's disease.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate respiratory muscle strength in mild to moderate Parkinson's disease in comparison with prediction equations and age-matched controls. To identify correlations between respiratory muscle strength and daily living function, activity levels, quality of life, and exercise capacity. DESIGN: A total of 66 participants with Parkinson's disease and 32 age-matched, healthy controls participated. Respiratory mouth pressures (representing respiratory muscle strength) were compared with predicted values. A comparison was also made between participants with Parkinson's disease and age-matched controls. Respiratory mouth pressures were correlated with results of the Barthel index (daily living function), a modified Baecke activity questionnaire (activity levels), the Parkinson's disease questionnaire (quality of life in Parkinson's disease), peak heart rate, peak oxygen consumption, blood lactate thresholds, and the number of stages completed during an incremental cycle ergometer test (representing exercise capacity). RESULTS: Respiratory mouth pressures were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the Parkinson's disease group, but this did not influence the measures of daily living function, activity levels, and quality of life. Respiratory mouth pressures correlated with lactate thresholds (r = 0.308, P < 0.01) and the number of completed stages of the cycle ergometer test (r = 0.490, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In mild to moderate Parkinson's disease, there is a significant weakness of the respiratory muscles. This can affect the individual during exercise but has no apparent effect on activities that do not require a large effort of the respiratory muscles.