Neofusicoccum parvum Associated with Grapevine Trunk Diseases in Chile.

During 2009 and 2010, a survey (n = 520) of diseased grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) was done in vineyards located in Maipo and Colchagua valleys (33°43' to 34°36'S) in Chile. Symptoms of trunk diseases (TD) were observed on >10-year-old grapevines and consisted of short internodes, dead spurs and arms, and dieback. In cross sections, diseased arms and trunks exhibited brown, V-shaped cankers of hard consistency. Collected canker samples from cvs. Cabernet Sauvignon, Carménère, Red Globe, Syrah, and Thompson Seedless were surface sterilized in 75% ethanol for 45 s and plated onto potato dextrose agar modified with 0.005% tetracycline, 0.01% streptomycin, and 0.1% Igepal CO-630 (MPDA; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) for 7 days at 20°C. White-to-gray colonies with aerial mycelium growth turned dark gray after 3 to 5 days and tentatively identified as Botryosphaeriaceae. Hyphal tips of these colonies were transferred to MPDA and kept at 20°C with continuous light. After 30 days, colonies developed black, globose pycnidia with unicellular, hyaline, ellipsoidal, densely granulate, externally smooth, and thin-walled conidia that measured (16.3) 19.3 ± 2.3 (25.9) × (5.8) 7.4 ± 0.8 (9.2) µm (n = 20). Morphologically, these isolates were identified as Neofusicoccum parvum (Pennycook & Samuels) Crous, Slippers & A.J.L. Phillips (2). Nucleotide BLAST analysis of the region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 of rDNA of N. parvum isolates HMUC-104 and HMUC-105 (GenBank Accession Nos. JF273631 and JF273632) were amplified with ITS4 and ITS5 primers and revealed >99% similarity with the sequence of reference isolate (EU833984). Pathogenicity tests were conducted using isolates HMUC-104 and HMUC-105 on 30-day-old Carménère grapevines (n = 8) rooted in vitro by placing a 3- to 5-mm mycelial plug on the surface of the propagation medium. Additionally, detached green shoots (GS) (n = 5) and dormant canes (DC) (n = 6) 15-cm long were inoculated by placing a 3- to 5-mm mycelial plug underneath a cut aseptically made in the cortex. The GS and DC were placed in humidity chambers at 20 and 25°C, respectively. For controls, an equal number of rooted vines, in vitro vines, GS, and DC were treated with sterile agar plugs. Leaf number (LN), shoot length (SL), and root length (RL) were assessed on rooted plants in vitro after 30 days at 20°C. The extent of vascular discoloration (VD) of GS and DC were determined 15 and 45 days, respectively. N. parvum significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the LN, SL, and RL relative to the control plants. The length of VD varied from 54.86 to 55.39 mm and 14.8 to 15.48 mm in inoculated GS and DC, respectively. No VD symptoms were observed on the controls. N. parvum was reisolated from 100% of the inoculated in vitro plants, GS, and DC, completing Koch's postulates. N. parvum has been documented as a canker pathogen on V. vinifera and is known to contribute to the decline of grapevines. To our knowledge, this is the first report of N. parvum causing bot canker on grapevines in Chile, but has previously been reported in Australia, Spain, and the United States. Of 520 diseased plants in this study, 10 to 15% prevalence was estimated for TD and almost 2% prevalence was associated to N. parvum. Other Botryosphaeriaceae spp. were isolated with N. parvum from grapevine TD in Chilean vineyards (1,3,4). References: (1) J. Auger et al. Plant Dis. 88:1286, 2004. (2) P. W. Crous et al. Stud. Mycol. 55:235, 2006. (3) B. A. Latorre et al. Phytopathology 76:1112, 1986. (4) A. Morales et al. Phytopathol. Mediterr. 49:112, 2010.

Neofusicoccum spp. Associated with Stem Canker and Dieback of Blueberry in Chile.

Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) plantings have significantly increased in Chile during the last decade and, currently, over 10,700 ha are cultivated throughout the country. Among other diseases, stem canker and dieback has been frequently observed in commercial plantations with incidences between 15 and 45%. The aim of this study was to identify and characterize Neofusicoccum spp. causing stem canker and dieback of blueberry in Chile. Three species, N. arbuti, N. australe, and N. parvum, were identified based on colony and conidia morphology, and nucleotide sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2). These Neofusicoccum spp. were found alone or coexisting with Pestalotiopsis spp., Truncatella spp., or Phomopsis spp. Koch's postulates showed all Neofusicoccum spp. isolated from infected plants to be pathogenic when inoculated on blueberry fruit and twigs using both mycelia and conidia suspension. All blueberry cultivars tested, including, Brigitta, Bluecrop, Brightwell, Duke, Elliott, Misty, and O'Neal, were susceptible to Neofusicoccum spp. infection. Pathogenicity tests showed N. parvum to be the most virulent species and Elliott to be the most susceptible cultivar. This report represents the first description of N. arbuti, N. australe, and N. parvum as canker-causing agents on blueberry in Chile.

Identification of Phytophthora cryptogea as the Cause of Rapid Decline of Petunia (Petunia × hybrida) in Chile.

Phytophthora cryptogea was consistently isolated from diseased tissue taken from the crown and necrotic roots of grandiflora type petunia (Petunia × hybrida) that were collected in gardens in five public parks in Santiago, Chile in 2004 and 2005. Symptoms included leaf wilting and foliar chlorosis, followed by partial necrosis, and extensive dark-brown to reddish cankers in the crown. Disease incidence was over 50% and infected plants died within 7 to 10 days after transplanting. This pathogen was identified on the basis of colony morphology, morphological characterization of the sexual and asexual reproductive structures, and temperature range. The identification of Phytophthora cryptogea was further corroborated by the internal transcribed spacer sequence analysis (GenBank accession number EF093534). Isolates of P. cryptogea were pathogenic on 10-week-old white grandiflora petunia plants that were inoculated on the roots or on the crown using mycelium fragments, or via soil inoculation using zoospores. A rapid decline was observed after soil inoculations with zoospores. Root fresh weight decreased significantly and the root rot index and severity of foliage symptoms increased significantly (P ≤ 0.05), relative to noninoculated plants after 14 days of incubation. Two isolates (Ph-1 and Ph-2) were pathogenic on bell pepper and one isolate (Ph-1) was pathogenic on tomato after root inoculation. Two isolates (Ph-2 and Ph-3) were pathogenic on the fruit of avocado, bell pepper, cherry tomato, cucumber, kiwifruit, lemon, pear, pepino, and potato tubers, demonstrating the pathogen's ability to cause postharvest infection of fruit of a wide range of host plants. The efficacy of mefenoxam at 0.1 mg/ml mixed with either chlorothalonil at 1.0 mg/ml or mancozeb at 1.6 mg/ml was demonstrated in this study, whereas chlorothalonil and mancozeb alone did not control disease development. No significant differences were obtained between foliage and soil drench applications. This study demonstrated that P. cryptogea is the cause of the rapid decline found on petunia in Santiago, Chile and, to our knowledge, this is the first report giving a detailed description of a disease caused by P. cryptogea on petunia.

Metabolic studies on lean and fat Pekin ducks selected for breast muscle thickness measured by ultrasound scanning.

Female Pekin ducks selected for high (lean) or low (fat) breast muscle:total breast thickness ratio (MT:TOT), measured with ultrasound scanning, were used in metabolic studies to determine the metabolic differences and assess the effects of feed withdrawal and refeeding on plasma parameters. Lean and fat ducks had similar body weight changes throughout the studies. Lean ducks had significantly lower fat and higher CP and ash carcass contents. They also had higher (P < 0.05) plasma glucose after feed withdrawal but less (P < 0.05) plasma glucose after feeding. Fat ducks had similar plasma triglycerides (TG) after feed withdrawal but higher (P < 0.05) TG concentration after feeding and higher (P < 0.05) plasma uric acid than the lean females after feeding. Feed deprivation resulted in higher (P < 0.05) plasma cholesterol than did feeding. Lean ducks fed the test diet retained more (P < 0.05) N than the fat birds. Lean and fat Pekin ducks had similar (P > 0.05) AME, AMEn, TME, and TMEn. Lean ducks lost less (P < 0.05) N than fat birds. Plasma cholesterol was not significantly correlated (P = 0.06) with nitrogen retention (NR); NR was negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with plasma TG, and TG was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with total energy excreted. There was a positive correlation (P < 0.05) between MT:TOT and NR. The MT:TOT correlated (P < 0.05) negatively with carcass fat, and positively with carcass CP and plasma insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) concentration. The results we obtained demonstrate the usefulness of ultrasound scanning in live bird selection for leanness and greater breast muscle thickness and are related to metabolic differences between lean and fat female Pekin ducks selected for high or low MT:TOT ratios.

Comparative performance, blood chemistry, and carcass composition of two lines of Pekin ducks reared mixed or separated by sex.

Male and female Pekin ducks selected (F2 generation) for greater breast muscle thickness (MT) and an unselected control (C) were used in this study under mixed- or separated-sex rearing. Ducks in the separated-sex program had significantly higher body weights than the birds in the mixed-sex program. The ducks selected for greater breast muscle thickness exhibited superior (P < 0.05) body weight up to 42 d of age. Males from the MT line reached market weight at 6 wk, but the breast muscle thickness, measured by ultrasound scanning, improved significantly from 6 to 7 wk of age. Males had greater (P < 0.05) breast muscle thickness than females. At both ages and for both sexes, the MT line had greater (P < 0.05) breast muscle thickness than the C line. The MT ducks consumed more (P < 0.05) feed up to 6 wk, but no significant difference was found in cumulative feed consumption at 7 wk, and the lines did not differ (P > 0.05) in feed:gain ratio. Males had significantly higher cumulative feed consumption at 6 wk but had a more desirable (P < 0.05) feed:gain ratio than females at 7 wk. Compared with females from the C line, MT females had significantly higher carcass yield, higher body protein, and lower fat. The MT females had higher plasma glucose and lower uric acid than the C females, but no significant difference was found between the MT and C lines for plasma triglycerides and total cholesterol. The results of this study support the utility of ultrasound scanning in duck selection, the separated rearing of ducklings, and the possibility of reducing the slaughter age of lean males.

Effects of line, dietary protein, sex, age, and feed withdrawal on insulin-like growth factor-I in White Pekin ducks.

Three experiments were conducted to determine and characterize plasma insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) concentrations in Pekin ducks. Plasma IGF-I in Pekin ducks was assayed in a heterologous radioimmunoassay for human IGF-I. When treated with acid, the response dose of duck IGF-I was parallel to that of human recombinant (r) IGF-I. The effect of line (greater breast muscle thickness vs. control) was determined in Experiment 1 in female ducks. The ducks with greater breast muscle thickness had higher (P<0.05) plasma IGF-I concentrations than the control ducks. In Experiment 2, the effects of dietary protein, sex, and age were examined from 42 to 49 d of age. Three dietary programs that differ in dietary crude protein were used in this experiment. Ducks on the high protein program had (P<0.05) higher plasma IGF-I concentrations than ducks on either medium or low protein programs. Males exhibited higher (P<0.05) IGF-I than females. Plasma IGF-I concentrations decreased with age from 42 to 49 d. In Experiment 3, the effects of selection criterion (high or low breast muscle thickness to total breast thickness ratio) and the feed-deprived or fed state were studied in female Pekin ducks. The high ratio ducks were more affected by feed deprivation. These ducks had similar plasma IGF-I concentrations to low ratio ducks during feed withdrawal, but had higher (P<0.05) concentrations when fed. These data contribute to an understanding of the influence of IGF-I on metabolism and will be of value to the improvement of lean Pekin duck production.

Nutrient digestibility in food waste ingredients for Pekin and Muscovy ducks.

Food wastes are valuable resources to be recycled into new added-value products through animal production. The determination of energy and digestibility values of these wastes is essential for feed formulation. Corn, soybean meal (SBM), and a total of nine industrial food waste ingredients were tested in a comparative metabolic study in Pekin and Muscovy ducklings at two different ages during growth. The "precision-feeding" technique was employed to establish DM, fat, and fiber digestibility as well as retention of N and energy (AME, AMEn in Pekins; and AME, AMEn, TME, TMEn in Muscovies) for the 11 ingredients. For Pekin at 3 wk of age, the AMEn of peanuts, tofu, pogo, granola, waste diet, bread, corn, SBM, okara, and brewers grains were 5,141, 4,019, 3,971, 3,908, 3,141, 2,279, 1,572, and 1,442 kcal/kg, respectively. For Pekin at 6 wk of age, the AMEn of peanuts, pogo, tofu, granola, waste diet, bread, corn, SBM, and okara were 5,340, 4,327, 4,254, 4,079, 3,567, 3,302, 3,201, 2,416, and 1,562 kcal/kg, respectively. For Muscovy at 7 wk of age, the TMEn of peanuts, pogo, granola, waste diet, corn, tofu, bread, SBM, okara, and peanut skin were 5,207, 4,321, 4,057, 3,733, 3,233, 3,180, 3,084, 2,236, 1,575, and 904 kcal/kg, respectively. For Muscovy at 11 wk of age, the TMEn of peanuts, pogo, granola, tofu, waste diet, corn, bread, SBM, okara, and brewers grains were 5,077, 4,137, 4,025, 3,921, 3,586, 3,254, 3,123, 2,245, 2,007, and 1,392 kcal/kg, respectively. Nitrogen retention was significantly (P < 0.05) higher for SBM, tofu, okara, pogo, peanuts, and the food waste diet and lower for bread, corn, granola, brewers grains, and peanut skin. Dry matter digestibility was high for granola, pogo, corn, bread, and the food waste diet. Fat digestibility was generally the same for all the ingredients and was consistently over 97%. Bread neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was significantly (P < 0.05) the most digestible (88.92% NDF digestibility), as it consisted of 96.29% hemicellulose, whereas okara NDF was significantly (P < 0.05) the least digestible (26.94% NDF digestibility) and contained only 14.38% hemicellulose. Peanut skins and SBM with 30% hemicellulose showed only slightly higher digestibilities of NDF. The results of this study establish reliable data for formulation of duck diets using the tested industrial food waste ingredients as well as corn and SBM in both Pekin and Muscovy ducklings at two different ages during growth to market weight.

Apparent digestibility of protein and amino acids in broiler chickens fed a corn-soybean diet supplemented with microbial phytase.

The effect of microbial phytase supplementation on CP and amino acid (AA) digestibility was investigated in a 28-d trial using 360 sexed, day-old broiler chickens fed corn-soybean meal diets. The experimental design was a completely randomized one with a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. The variables included P and Ca levels and phytase: P and Ca levels were: normal P-normal Ca [0.45% available P (Pa), 1.0% Ca], low P-normal Ca (0.35% Pa, 1.0% Ca), and low P-low Ca (0.35 Pa and 0.6% Ca); and phytase at 0 and 600 U/kg diet. Phytase supplementation increased body weight gain (P < 0.014) and feed intake (P < 0.004) at 19 d in male chickens; in females, phytase increased (P < 0.012) only body weight gain at 19 d. The low P-normal Ca diet reduced (P < 0.05) feed intake and body weight gain in both sexes at 7, 14, and 19 d, compared to the normal P-normal Ca diet; the reduction of Ca in the low P diet prevented the above depression, resulting in body weight gain and feed intake to a level comparable to that of the normal P-normal Ca diet. Microbial phytase supplementation had no effect (P < 0.065) on the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of CP or any AA except Met and Phe in male broiler chickens. In females, adding phytase increased the AID of all AA except Lys, Met, Phe, and Pro. The low P-normal Ca diet reduced (P < 0.05) the AID of Phe, Asp, and Ser in male chickens and reduced the AID of all the AA except Met and Pro in females compared to the normal P-normal Ca diet. The reduction of Ca in the low P diet prevented the depression of the AID of the AA caused by the low P-normal Ca diet, resulting in AID of AA having a level comparable to that of the normal P-normal Ca diet in both sexes. Phytase supplementation did not have any effect (P > 0.05) on apparent "fecal" digestibility (AFD) of CP or any of the AA in male chickens; however, in female chickens it increased the AFD of Thr, Asp, Glu, and Ser. In summary, phytase supplementation increased growth performance in both sexes; increased AID and AFD of most of the AA, particularly in female chickens. The optimum growth performance and AA digestibilities were obtained with the lowest input of resources, in the low P-low Ca diet supplemented with microbial phytase.

Efficacy of supplemental microbial phytase at different dietary calcium levels on growth performance and mineral utilization of broiler chickens.

A 3-wk feeding trial with 240 sexed, day-old broiler chickens was conducted to determine the efficacy of microbial phytase at different levels of dietary Ca on performance and utilization of minerals in broiler chickens fed a low-P corn-soybean diet. The experimental design was a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments; Ca at 0.6, 1.0, and 1.25% and phytase at 0 and 600 phytase U/kg diet. Phytase supplementation, regardless of Ca level, increased (P < or = 0.005) feed intake, (P < or = 0.0001) body weight, and (P < or = 0.025) feed efficiency at 21 d; the optimum levels of body weight, feed intake, and feed efficiency were obtained with low (0.6%) dietary Ca plus phytase. Retentions of P, Ca, and N were increased (P < or = 0.05) by phytase supplementation. Although maximum retentions of P and N were obtained at the 1.0 and 1.25% Ca levels, respectively, they were not significantly different from the values obtained at 0.6% Ca. The increasing level of dietary Ca decreased plasma P ( P < or = 0.05) and Cu (P < or = 0.06). Phytase supplementation had the opposite effect; i.e., increased plasma P (P < or = 0.03) and Cu (P < or = 0.02). The maximum level of plasma P was obtained with phytase at the 1.0% Ca level, but this value was not significantly different from the value obtained with phytase at the 0.6% Ca level. Phytase supplementation increased (P < 0.04) the ash content of both tibia head and shaft but had no effect on mineral contents in the ash. The optimum level of ash content was observed with the 0.06% Ca diet plus phytase. The results show that microbial phytase supplementation to a low P diet improved growth performance and mineral utilization in broiler chickens. Dietary Ca levels had a significant effect on the response to phytase; the optimum growth performance and mineral utilization were achieved at the low (0.6%) level of dietary Ca supplemented with phytase.

The effects of supplemental microbial phytase on the performance and utilization of dietary calcium, phosphorus, copper, and zinc in broiler chickens fed corn-soybean diets.

A 3-wk feeding trial with 180 sexed day-old broiler chickens was conducted to study the efficacy of microbial phytase (Natuphos 1000) on growth performance, relative retention of P, Ca, Cu, and Zn, and mineral contents of plasma and bone. Treatments involved a normal P level corn-soybean diet, a low-P diet, and a low-P plus phytase (600 phytase units/kg) diet. Phytase supplementation increased (P < or = 0.05) body weight in male and female chickens by 13.2 and 5.8%, respectively, at 21 d. The improvements yielded body weights comparable to those obtained on the normal P diet. Phytase supplementation overcame (P < or = 0.05) the depression of feed intake observed on the low-P diet. Treatments had no effect on feed:gain ratio. Phytase supplementation of the low-P diet increased (P < or = 0.05) the relative retention of total P, Ca, Cu, and Zn by 12.5, 12.2, 19.3, and 62.3 percentage units, respectively, in male chickens. Microbial phytase increased the plasma P by 15.7% and reduced (P < or = 0.05) the Ca concentration by 34.1%, but had no effect on plasma concentrations of Cu or Zn. Phytase supplementation increased the percentage ash in both head and shaft portions of dry, fat-free tibia bone to a level comparable to that of the normal-P diet. Phytase supplementation had no effect on the concentration of any of the minerals measured in whole tibia ash but did increase (P < or = 0.05) the DM percentage of P and Ca min tibia head of male chickens by 0.65 and 1.4 percentage units, respectively. These results show that microbial phytase supplementation of a low-P diet increased growth and relative retention of total P, Ca, Cu, and Zn and improved bone mineralization in broiler chickens.

Comparative trace mineral nutritional balance of first-litter gilts under two dietary levels of copper intake.

Seven pairs of purebred Landrace first-litter gilts, housed in individual stainless-steel metabolic cages were used in this study. A low-Cu (LCu) basal diet containing only 2 mg/kg of Cu was compared to the control (CCu) diet, which was supplemented with cupric carbonate to provide 10 mg/kg of Cu. Both diets were fed at the rate of 2 kg per day to first-litter gilts during the entire pregnancy. The metabolic response under these two levels of dietary Cu intake was evaluated through nutritional balances conducted for 5 days starting at 30, 60 and 100 days of pregnancy. Total urine collection was done through teflon-coated catheters to the bladder while daily fecal collection was carried out continuously. Water consumption was measured and periodic samples were collected for analysis. Nutritional balances included DM digestibility, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn. The LCh group consumed 4.26 mg of Cu per day while the CCu received 25 mg of Cu per day. This includes 1 mg per day in the drinking water in both groups. DM digestibility was significantly (P < 0.05) higher during early pregnancy in the LCu group compared to the CCu group, which showed a significant (P < 0.05) increase in DM digestibility from early to late pregnancy period. Dietary Cu intake had a direct effect (p < 0.05) on Cu balance but also altered the Zn and Fe nutritional balance, leaving Mn balance almost unchanged. Feces represented the almost exclusive route of excretion of trace minerals. Regardless of the dietary Cu intake, it represents more than 99.9% of the Fe and Mn, 98% of the Zn and 97% of the Cu was excreted daily through feces plus urine. The nutritional balance of Cu, Zn and Fe, in absolute amounts as well as relative to the level of intake, improved significantly as pregnancy progressed. Although relative retention of the low-Cu group was significantly improved compared to the control group, the absolute amount was still much lower. The well recognized dietary and metabolic interactions of Cu with Zn and Fe were evident in the first-litter gilts receiving the low-Cu diet during pregnancy. The absolute amount, as well as the relative retention as a % of the intake, was increased on average during the entire pregnancy for Zn by more than 70% and for Fe by more than 80% during the last third of pregnancy. In contrast Mn balance was almost unchanged. The major response to low-Cu intake was directed toward greater apparent absorption of the trace minerals which was reflected in a reduced fecal excretion.

The effects of low dietary copper intake during pregnancy on physiological fluids and reproductive performance of first-litter gilts.

Seven pairs of first littermate gilts were used to study the influence of low copper supply and pregnancy on physiological fluids and reproductive performance of first-litter gilts. They were fed semi-purified diets containing either 2.13 or 12.25 micrograms/kg of Cu from 30 days of gestation through two weeks of lactation. Low-Cu gilts had lower plasma Cu in early- and mid- gestation and farrowed piglets with lower plasma Cu and higher plasma Zn concentrations (p < 0.05). Plasma Fe and Mn concentrations were not affected by Cu supply (p > 0.05). Plasma Cu and Fe levels of newborn piglets were lower than those of their dams (p < 0.05) but this was not true for plasma Zn and Mn (p > 0.05). Low-Cu gilts had lower Cu and higher Zn content in colostrum and also lower Cu in milk than control gilts (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in Fe and Mn levels in colostrum and milk between the two treatments (p > 0.05). Colostrum was richer in Cu and Zn than milk (p < 0.05) but not in Fe and Mn (p > 0.05). The low-Cu diet did not affect (p > 0.05) weight changes during pregnancy. The duration of parturition was shorter for low-Cu than for control gilts (3.19h vs. 5.71h, p < 0.05). Control gilts farrowed larger litters than low-Cu gilts (9.71 vs. 7.57 piglets, p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in live litter weights at birth, one wk. or two wks. of age (p > 0.05). The results indicated that a low-Cu diet and pregnancy had some effect on plasma, colostrum and milk mineral concentrations, as well as on litter size of gilts. An interaction between Cu and Zn was found.

Recovery of amino acids at the distal ileum for determining apparent and true ileal amino acid digestibilities in growing pigs fed various heat-processed full-fat soybean products.

Ten crossbred gilts fitted with simple T-cannulas at the distal ileum were used to determine the apparent and true ileal amino acid digestibilities in five different soybean products: extruded, jetsploded, micronized, or roasted full-fat soybeans (FFSB) and soybean meal (SBM). The gilts with an average initial body weight of 36 kg were fed the different diets according to a replicated 5 x 5 Latin square design. Gilts were fed twice daily at 0800 and 1830 at 2.6 times maintenance energy requirement. All diets were cornstarch-based and formulated to contain 16% CP from one of the five soybean products. The recovery of endogenous lysine at the distal ileum was determined using the homoarginine technique. This technique involved the guanidination of dietary lysine to homoarginine, to allow for a differentiation between undigested dietary lysine, represented by homoarginine, and endogenous lysine in the digestive tract of pigs consuming diets that contain guanidinated proteins. Chromic oxide and dysprosium chloride were included as indigestible markers in the normal and homoarginine diets, respectively. True digestibilities were only determined with the five gilts of one Latin square. Ileal digesta were collected for 24 h on d 8 and 10 of each 10-d experimental period. The apparent ileal protein digestibility was higher in SBM than in other soybean products (P < .05). In the heat-treated FFSB, the apparent protein digestibility varied between 69.0 and 81.6%. Recovery of endogenous lysine was affected by the diet (P < .01) and varied between 1,329 and 2,448 mg/kg of DM intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Research note: eggshell quality in Japanese quail fed different fatty acids.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of diets containing 3% palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) on the shell quality of eggs of Japanese quail. Each diet was fed to 10 hens maintained individually in wire quail laying cages. There was no difference (P greater than .05) in feed consumption between hens fed Diets OA and LA, but hens of both groups consumed less (P less than .05) feed than those fed Diet PA. Egg weight, shell weight, and thickness of shell plus membrane were not influenced by dietary treatment (P greater than .05). However, specific gravity of eggs from hens fed Diet OA was significantly higher (P less than .05) than that of eggs from those fed either Diet PA or Diet LA. Comparison of these data with hatchability data obtained in a previous experiment conducted under similar conditions suggests that the differences in hatchability would not be explained by differences in eggshell quality.

Effect of feeding palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids to Japanese quail hens (Coturnix coturnix japonica). 2. Maternal diets and stage of incubation on the lipid metabolism of quail embryos.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of diets containing 3% of either palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) and three stages of development (Days 11, 13, and 15 of incubation) on 1) weights of yolk plus yolk sac membrane (TY), yolk sac membrane (YSM), yolk, liver, and extrahepatic tissue (ET); and 2) the fatty acid composition of phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol ester fractions of YSM and ET of quail embryos. Embryos from birds fed Diet LA had the highest (P less than .05) weights of TY and yolk followed by those from birds fed Diet OA and Diet PA. The weight of ET was highest (P less than .05) in embryos from birds fed Diet PA followed by those from birds fed Diet LA and Diet OA. The weights of YSM and liver were not affected by the maternal diet (P greater than .05). The weight of TY decreased whereas the weights of liver and ET increased as incubation progressed (P less than .05). The weight of YSM was maximum at Day 13 of incubation. In the phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol ester fractions of both YSM and ET of embryos, the fatty acid present at the highest level, except palmitic acid, was the one added to the maternal diet. In phospholipids of both YSM and ET the oleic acid content decreased and linoleic acid increased as incubation progressed. In triglycerides and cholesterol esters of both YSM and ET, the levels of palmitic acid increased, but oleic and linoleic acids decreased, with advancing embryonic development. The results of the present study indicate that embryos from birds fed Diet PA mobilize more yolk material and produce heavier ET than embryos from birds fed Diet OA and Diet LA. The fatty acid profiles of phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol esters of embryonic tissues are consistently influenced by dietary fatty acid and the stage of development.

Effect of feeding palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids to Japanese quail hens (Coturnix coturnix japonica). 1. Reproductive performance and tissue fatty acids.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of diets containing 3% of either palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) on reproductive performance, fatty acid composition of egg yolk, plasma, and liver, and total plasma phosphorus of Japanese quail. Each diet was fed to 20 individually caged hens from 5 wk of age. A 24-wk production period started at 8 wk of age. Fertile eggs for incubation were obtained by placing at random a male in the cage with the female for 15 to 20 min twice per week. The males were kept in separate individual cages and fed a turkey grower diet throughout. Feed consumption, egg production, egg output, and the number of chicks per hen were higher (P less than .05) in birds fed Diet PA than in those fed Diet OA or Diet LA. Hatchability was not different (P greater than .05) between Diet PA and Diet OA, but they were higher (P less than .05) than that of Diet LA. Quail weight at hatch from birds fed Diet LA was heavier (P less than .05) than those from Diet OA, but not different (P greater than .05) from those fed Diet PA. Total plasma phosphorus concentration was higher (P less than .05) in birds fed Diet PA than in those fed Diet LA. High levels of oleic and linoleic acids were found in egg yolk, plasma, and liver lipids from birds fed Diet OA and Diet LA, respectively. Feeding Diet PA resulted in elevated levels of palmitoleic acid in all three tissues. The highest overall reproductive performance on Diet PA suggests that palmitic acid has some physiological role in reproduction. The sustained near-maximal levels of egg production and fertility achieved in this trial indicate the superiority of the mating procedure, which would also permit testing the response of male and female birds while minimizing injuries incurred by the females.

Metabolic activity of manganese during late gestation of first-litter gilts.

Four pairs of littermate Landrace gilts consuming either a low manganese (LMn) basal corn-soya diet (10 mg/kg) or a high Mn (HMn) supplement diet (84 mg/kg) were maintained in individual stainless steel metabolic cages throughout gestation. On the 100th day of gestation 200 microCi of 54Mn was administered intravenously. Total collection of feces and urine was conducted for a seven-day period. The sows were sacrificed after a three-week lactation period and several tissues excised. All samples were assayed for stable Mn content and 54Mn activity. Urinary excretion of 54Mn was negligible and not dependent on dietary Mn intake. Dietary Mn intake did not influence the rate of 54Mn elimination via the feces. The biological half-life (BHL) of the body Mn pool in late gestation averaged 54 days and was not influenced by treatment. The fecal Mn of endogenous origin was similar between treatments averaging 0.24 mg/d and yielded true absorption estimates of 1.31 and 1.61 mg/d for the LMn and HMn diets or 4.41% and 0.77% of dietary intake.

Metabolic activity of zinc during late pregnancy and lactation of first-litter gilts and their offspring under low dietary zinc intake.

The metabolism of Zn-65 was studied in littermate gilts fed either low-Zn (10 mg/kg) or Zn-supplemented (50 mg/kg) diets throughout pregnancy and lactation, and dosed with 100 microCi of Zn-65 at 100 days of pregnancy. Zinc-65 appeared earlier in urine of deficient gilts and about the same time after dose in feces of both groups. Total activity and proportion of the dose excreted via feces were higher in supplemented gilts, where as specific activity (SA) of feces was higher in deficient gilts. Excretion of endogenous Zn by supplemented gilts was triple that of deficient gilts whereas true absorption of Zn by deficient gilts was more than 4-fold that of their supplemented littermates. Biological half-life of Zn-65 was 46 d for the control and twice as long in deficient gilts. Total activity and SA of colostrum was higher in deficient gilts. Muscle, followed by liver, retained the highest proportion of the dose in both groups. Proportion of the dose retained in the liver and lungs was higher in control gilts where as Zn-65 retention in brain, heart, lungs and spleen was higher in deficient gilts. Most tissues from deficient gilts showed higher SA. Liver showed the highest Zn-65 concentration in control and lung in low-Zn newborn piglets. At two weeks of age, liver from both groups of piglets showed the highest Zn-65 retention. Proportion of the dose in brain and lungs was higher in deficient piglets. Specific activity of most organs from deficient piglets was higher than that of controls at both ages. Pregnant gilts under low dietary Zn intake made maximum utilization of this mineral by increasing true absorption and reducing endogenous excretion.

Tissue composition and trace mineral content of the dam and litter under low dietary zinc intake during gestation and lactation of first-litter gilts.

Dry matter (DM), fat, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) analyses were performed in tissues from gilts and their offspring after receiving either a control (50 mg/kg) or a low-Zn dietary (10 mg/kg) during gestation and lactation. DM and fat content in the body tissues of the dams were not affected by Zn-intake except in the liver and placenta; liver fat was significantly decreased, while placenta fat was significantly increased in the low-Zn gilts. Several tissues of the dams fed the low-Zn diet showed a lower Zn concentration, but liver and bones were the most significantly affected. Liver from these dams compensated with a significant increase in Cu concentration, while placenta, although not affected in its Zn concentration, showed a significant increase in Mn concentration. Overall, at the end of a two week lactation, first-litter gilts showed a significant reduction in total body Zn content, reaching only 65% of the total Zn found in the control gilts. This was compensated for by a significant increase in the total body Cu content, which was 24% greater than in the control group. In spite of the significant reduction of the total body Zn in the dams fed the low-Zn diet, their newborn and two week old piglets showed a significant reduction in Zn concentration in several tissues, of which the liver and bones were mostly affected. At the same time, liver Cu concentration was significantly increased in these piglets. Curiously, there was also observed a consistent increase in Mn concentration in the brain and bones of these piglets. Total body Zn was reduced by more than 40% in newborn piglets from low-Zn dams. There was a significant increase in total body Zn observed from birth to 2 weeks of age in piglets, 58.4 and 53.4 mg for the control and low-Zn group, respectively. This resulted in no significant differences between the 2 experimental groups at the end of 2 weeks of suckling by their respective dams. This indicated that the colostrum and milk was a good source of Zn regardless of the dietary Zn intake of their dams. Total body Cu in piglets at birth was not found to be significantly different in the 2 groups but, by 2 weeks of age, piglets being sucked by low-Zn dams showed a significantly higher Cu content, with an excess of 50% or more of the Cu content found in control piglets.

The influence of supplemental corn oil and free fatty acids on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary corn oil (CO) and commercial free fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of blood plasma and egg yolk lipids and on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail. When quail were fed a semi-purified low-fat basal mix, the substitution of 3% of CO for corn starch (CS) improved egg weight (11.2 versus 10.8 g), reduced late embryonic mortality (16.7 versus 28.4%), and improved hatchability (75.7 versus 64.1%). Diets in which palmitic acid or oleic acid were substituted on a weight basis for 3% of CS performed as well as those in which CO was used. When linoleic acid replaced 3% of CS, late embryonic mortality was reduced (13.7 versus 28.4%) and hatchability was improved (80.1 versus 64.1%), but fertility was depressed (85.8 versus 93.6%). The substitution of linolenic acid for 3% of CS depressed feed consumption, body weight, and egg weight relative to the low-fat CS diet and did not improve the low 18-day embryonic livability and low hatchability. The fatty acid compositions of plasma and yolk were influenced by the lipid composition of the diets. Quail fed 3% of CO deposited more linoleic acid in the egg than those fed 3% of linoleic acid (15.2 versus 11.7%). Thus, quail fed a simplified basal breeder diet containing .6% of linoleic acid showed decreased embryonic livability and hatchability and these parameters achieved normal levels in response to the substitution of 3% of either CO, palmitic acid, oleic acid, or linoleic acid for CS.