Author Correction: The kinase TBK1 controls IgA class switching by negatively regulating noncanonical NF-κB signaling.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

FKBP51 employs both scaffold and isomerase functions to promote NF-κB activation in melanoma.

Melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer; its prognosis, particularly in advanced stages, is disappointing largely due to the resistance to conventional anticancer treatments and high metastatic potential. NF-κB constitutive activation is a major factor for the apoptosis resistance of melanoma. Several studies suggest a role for the immunophilin FKBP51 in NF-κB activation, but the underlying mechanism is still unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that FKBP51 physically interacts with IKK subunits, and facilitates IKK complex assembly. FKBP51-knockdown inhibits the binding of IKKγ to the IKK catalytic subunits, IKK-α and -ß, and attenuates the IKK catalytic activity. Using FK506, an inhibitor of the FKBP51 isomerase activity, we found that the IKK-regulatory role of FKBP51 involves both its scaffold function and its isomerase activity. Moreover, FKBP51 also interacts with TRAF2, an upstream mediator of IKK activation. Interestingly, both FKBP51 TPR and PPIase domains are required for its interaction with TRAF2 and IKKγ, whereas only the TPR domain is involved in interactions with IKKα and ß. Collectively, these results suggest that FKBP51 promotes NF-κB activation by serving as an IKK scaffold as well as an isomerase. Our findings have profound implications for designing novel melanoma therapies based on modulation of FKBP51.

Regulation of T-cell activation and migration by the kinase TBK1 during neuroinflammation.

Development of an immune or autoimmune response involves T-cell activation in lymphoid organs and subsequent migration to peripheral tissues. Here we show that T-cell-specific ablation of the kinase TBK1 promotes T-cell activation but causes retention of effector T cells in the draining lymph node in a neuroinflammatory autoimmunity model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). At older ages, the T-cell-conditional TBK1-knockout mice also spontaneously accumulate T cells with activated phenotype. TBK1 controls the activation of AKT and its downstream kinase mTORC1 by a mechanism involving TBK1-stimulated AKT ubiquitination and degradation. The deregulated AKT-mTORC1 signalling in turn contributes to enhanced T-cell activation and impaired effector T-cell egress from draining lymph nodes. Treatment of mice with a small-molecule inhibitor of TBK1 inhibits EAE induction. These results suggest a role for TBK1 in regulating T-cell migration and establish TBK1 as a regulator of the AKT-mTORC1 signalling axis.

TPL2 mediates autoimmune inflammation through activation of the TAK1 axis of IL-17 signaling.

Development of autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), involves the inflammatory action of Th1 and Th17 cells, but the underlying signaling mechanism is incompletely understood. We show that the kinase TPL2 is a crucial mediator of EAE and is required for the pathological action of Th17 cells. TPL2 serves as a master kinase mediating the activation of multiple downstream pathways stimulated by the Th17 signature cytokine IL-17. TPL2 acts by linking the IL-17 receptor signal to the activation of TAK1, which involves a dynamic mechanism of TPL2-TAK1 interaction and TPL2-mediated phosphorylation and catalytic activation of TAK1. These results suggest that TPL2 mediates TAK1 axis of IL-17 signaling, thereby promoting autoimmune neuroinflammation.

Inflammatory T cell responses rely on amino acid transporter ASCT2 facilitation of glutamine uptake and mTORC1 kinase activation.

Glutamine has been implicated as an immunomodulatory nutrient, but how glutamine uptake is mediated during T cell activation is poorly understood. We have shown that naive T cell activation is coupled with rapid glutamine uptake, which depended on the amino acid transporter ASCT2. ASCT2 deficiency impaired the induction of T helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 cells and attenuated inflammatory T cell responses in mouse models of immunity and autoimmunity. Mechanistically, ASCT2 was required for T cell receptor (TCR)-stimulated activation of the metabolic kinase mTORC1. We have further shown that TCR-stimulated glutamine uptake and mTORC1 activation also required a TCR signaling complex composed of the scaffold protein CARMA1, the adaptor molecule BCL10, and the paracaspase MALT1. This function was independent of IKK kinase, a major downstream target of the CARMA1 complex. These findings highlight a mechanism of T cell activation involving ASCT2-dependent integration of the TCR signal and a metabolic signaling pathway.

Peli1 promotes microglia-mediated CNS inflammation by regulating Traf3 degradation.

Microglia are crucial for the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Here we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Peli1 is abundantly expressed in microglia and promotes microglial activation during the course of EAE induction. Peli1 mediates the induction of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines in microglia and thereby promotes recruitment of T cells into the central nervous system. The severity of EAE is reduced in Peli1-deficient mice despite their competent induction of inflammatory T cells in the peripheral lymphoid organs. Notably, Peli1 regulates Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway signaling by promoting degradation of TNF receptor-associated factor 3 (Traf3), a potent inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation and gene induction. Ablation of Traf3 restores microglial activation and CNS inflammation after the induction of EAE in Peli1-deficient mice. These findings establish Peli1 as a microglia-specific mediator of autoimmune neuroinflammation and suggest a previously unknown signaling mechanism of Peli1 function.

OTUD7B controls non-canonical NF-κB activation through deubiquitination of TRAF3.

The non-canonical NF-κB pathway forms a major arm of NF-κB signalling that mediates important biological functions, including lymphoid organogenesis, B-lymphocyte function, and cell growth and survival. Activation of the non-canonical NF-κB pathway involves degradation of an inhibitory protein, TNF receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3), but how this signalling event is controlled is still unknown. Here we have identified the deubiquitinase OTUD7B as a pivotal regulator of the non-canonical NF-κB pathway. OTUD7B deficiency in mice has no appreciable effect on canonical NF-κB activation but causes hyperactivation of non-canonical NF-κB. In response to non-canonical NF-κB stimuli, OTUD7B binds and deubiquitinates TRAF3, thereby inhibiting TRAF3 proteolysis and preventing aberrant non-canonical NF-κB activation. Consequently, the OTUD7B deficiency results in B-cell hyper-responsiveness to antigens, lymphoid follicular hyperplasia in the intestinal mucosa, and elevated host-defence ability against an intestinal bacterial pathogen, Citrobacter rodentium. These findings establish OTUD7B as a crucial regulator of signal-induced non-canonical NF-κB activation and indicate a mechanism of immune regulation that involves OTUD7B-mediated deubiquitination and stabilization of TRAF3.

TRIM28 mediates chromatin modifications at the TCRα enhancer and regulates the development of T and natural killer T cells.

T-cell receptor-α (TCRα) rearrangement in CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive immature thymocytes is a prerequisite for production of αß T cells and invariant natural killer T cells. This developmental event is regulated by the TCRα enhancer (Eα), which induces chromatin modification and recruitment of the recombination-activating proteins Rag1 and Rag2. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the activation and long-range action of Eα remains incompletely understood. We show here that the chromatin-modifying factor TRIM28 is highly expressed in double-positive thymocytes and persistently phosphorylated at serine 473. TRIM28 binds to Eα and induces histone 3 lysine 4 trimethylation in the Eα and distant regions of the TCRα locus, coupled with recruitment of Rag proteins. T-cell-conditional ablation of TRIM28 impaired TCRα gene rearrangement and compromised the development of αß T cells and invariant natural killer T cells. These findings establish TRIM28 as a unique regulator of thymocyte development and highlight an epigenetic mechanism involving TRIM28-mediated active chromatin modification in the TCRα locus.

The kinase TBK1 controls IgA class switching by negatively regulating noncanonical NF-κB signaling.

Immunoglobulin class switching is crucial for the generation of antibody diversity in humoral immunity and, when deregulated, also has severe pathological consequences. How the magnitude of immunoglobulin isotype switching is controlled is still poorly understood. Here we identify the kinase TBK1 as a pivotal negative regulator of class switching to the immunoglobulin A (IgA) isotype. B cell-specific ablation of TBK1 in mice resulted in uncontrolled production of IgA and the development of nephropathy-like disease signs. TBK1 negatively regulated IgA class switching by attenuating noncanonical signaling via the transcription factor NF-κB, an action that involved TBK1-mediated phosphorylation and subsequent degradation of the NF-κB-inducing kinase NIK. Our findings establish TBK1 as a pivotal negative regulator of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway and identify a unique mechanism that controls IgA production.

Peli: a family of signal-responsive E3 ubiquitin ligases mediating TLR signaling and T-cell tolerance.

E3 ubiquitin ligases play a crucial role in regulating immune receptor signaling and modulating immune homeostasis and activation. One emerging family of such E3s is the Pelle-interacting (Peli) proteins, characterized by the presence of a cryptic forkhead-associated domain involved in substrate binding and an atypical RING domain mediating formation of both lysine (K) 63- and K48-linked polyubiquitin chains. A well-recognized function of Peli family members is participation in the signal transduction mediated by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and IL-1 receptor. Recent gene targeting studies have provided important insights into the in vivo functions of Peli1 in the regulation of TLR signaling and inflammation. These studies have also extended the biological functions of Peli1 to the regulation of T-cell tolerance. Consistent with its immunoregulatory functions, Peli1 responds to different immune stimuli for its gene expression and catalytic activation. In this review, we discuss the recent progress, as well as the historical perspectives in the regulation and biological functions of Peli.

The ubiquitin ligase Peli1 negatively regulates T cell activation and prevents autoimmunity.

T cell activation is subject to tight regulation to avoid inappropriate responses to self antigens. Here we show that genetic deficiency in the ubiquitin ligase Peli1 caused hyperactivation of T cells and rendered T cells refractory to suppression by regulatory T cells and transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß). As a result, Peli1-deficient mice spontaneously developed autoimmunity characterized by multiorgan inflammation and autoantibody production. Peli1 deficiency resulted in the nuclear accumulation of c-Rel, a member of the NF-κB family of transcription factors with pivotal roles in T cell activation. Peli1 negatively regulated c-Rel by mediating its Lys48 (K48) ubiquitination. Our results identify Peli1 as a critical factor in the maintenance of peripheral T cell tolerance and demonstrate a previously unknown mechanism of c-Rel regulation.

Noncanonical NF-kappaB regulates inducible costimulator (ICOS) ligand expression and T follicular helper cell development.

Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells have a central role in mediating humoral immune responses. Generation of Tfh cells depends on both T-cell intrinsic factors and the supporting function of B cells, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here we show that NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK), a central component of the noncanonical NF-κB signaling pathway, is required for Tfh cell development. Unlike other known Tfh regulators, NIK acts by controlling the supporting function of B cells. NIK and its upstream BAFF receptor regulate B-cell expression of inducible costimulator ligand (ICOSL), a molecule required for Tfh cell generation. Consistently, injection of a recombinant ICOSL protein into NIK-deficient mice largely rescues their defect in Tfh cell development. We provide biochemical and genetic evidence indicating that the ICOSL gene is a specific target of the noncanonical NF-κB. Our findings suggest that the noncanonical NF-κB pathway regulates the development of Tfh cells by mediating ICOSL gene expression in B cells.

The specificity of innate immune responses is enforced by repression of interferon response elements by NF-κB p50.

The specific binding of transcription factors to cognate sequence elements is thought to be critical for the generation of specific gene expression programs. Members of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and interferon (IFN) regulatory factor (IRF) transcription factor families bind to the κB site and the IFN response element (IRE), respectively, of target genes, and they are activated in macrophages after exposure to pathogens. However, how these factors produce pathogen-specific inflammatory and immune responses remains poorly understood. Combining top-down and bottom-up systems biology approaches, we have identified the NF-κB p50 homodimer as a regulator of IRF responses. Unbiased genome-wide expression and biochemical and structural analyses revealed that the p50 homodimer repressed a subset of IFN-inducible genes through a previously uncharacterized subclass of guanine-rich IRE (G-IRE) sequences. Mathematical modeling predicted that the p50 homodimer might enforce the stimulus specificity of composite promoters. Indeed, the production of the antiviral regulator IFN-ß was rendered stimulus-specific by the binding of the p50 homodimer to the G-IRE-containing IFNß enhancer to suppress cytotoxic IFN signaling. Specifically, a deficiency in p50 resulted in the inappropriate production of IFN-ß in response to bacterial DNA sensed by Toll-like receptor 9. This role for the NF-κB p50 homodimer in enforcing the specificity of the cellular response to pathogens by binding to a subset of IRE sequences alters our understanding of how the NF-κB and IRF signaling systems cooperate to regulate antimicrobial immunity.

Regulation of natural killer T-cell development by deubiquitinase CYLD.

Natural killer T (NKT) cells modulate immune responses against pathogens and tumours, as well as immunological tolerance. We show here that CYLD, a tumour suppressor with deubiquitinase function, has a pivotal and cell-intrinsic function in NKT cell development. Unlike other known NKT regulators, CYLD is dispensable for intrathymic NKT cell maturation but is obligatory for the survival of immature NKT cells. Interestingly, CYLD deficiency impairs the expression of ICOS, a costimulatory molecule required for the survival and homeostasis of NKT cells, and this molecular defect is associated with attenuated response to an NKT-survival cytokine, IL-7, due to reduced expression of IL-7 receptor. We show, for the first time, that IL-7 induces the expression of ICOS in NKT cells, which is largely dependent on CYLD. Interestingly, loss of CYLD causes constitutive NF-kappaB activation in developing NKT cells, which contributes to their defective IL-7 response and attenuated ICOS expression. These findings establish CYLD as a critical regulator of NKT cell development and provide molecular insights into this novel function of CYLD.

Distinct signal codes generate dendritic cell functional plasticity.

Our adaptive immune system induces distinct responses to different pathogens because of the functional plasticity of dendritic cells (DCs); however, how DCs program unique responses remains unclear. Here, we found that the cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) potently transduced a unique T helper type 2 (T(H)2)-inducing compound signal in DCs. Whereas activation of nuclear factor kappaB (predominantly p50) drove DCs to produce OX40L to induce T(H)2 differentiation, the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) triggered DCs to secrete chemokines necessary for the recruitment of T(H)2 cells. In addition, TSLP signaling limited the activation of STAT4 and interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF-8), which are essential factors for the production of the T(H)1-polarizing cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12). By contrast, Toll-like receptor ligands and CD40 ligand did not activate STAT6 in myeloid DCs, but instead increased the abundance of STAT4 and IRF-8 to induce T(H)1 responses through the production of IL-12. Therefore, we propose that the functional plasticity of DCs relies on elaborate signal codes that are generated by different stimuli.

TSLP production by epithelial cells exposed to immunodeficiency virus triggers DC-mediated mucosal infection of CD4+ T cells.

Mucosal dendritic cells have been implicated in the capture, storage, and transmission of HIV to CD4(+) T cells as well as in the promotion of HIV replication in activated CD4(+) T cells during the cognate T-cell and DC interaction. We report that HIV induces human genital mucosal epithelial cells to produce thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) via activation of the NFkappaB signaling pathway. The TSLP secreted by HIV exposed epithelial cells activated DC, which promoted proliferation and HIV-1 replication of co-cultured autologous CD4(+) T cells. In rhesus macaques, we observed dramatic increases in TSLP expression concurrent with an increase in viral replication in the vaginal tissues within the first 2 weeks after vaginal SIV exposure. These data suggest that HIV-mediated TSLP production by mucosal epithelial cells is a critical trigger for DC-mediated amplification of HIV-infection in activated CD4(+) T cells. The cross talk between mucosal epithelial cells and DC, mediated by HIV-induced TSLP, may be an important mechanism for the high rate of HIV infection in women through the vaginal mucosa.

Peli1 facilitates TRIF-dependent Toll-like receptor signaling and proinflammatory cytokine production.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pivotal in innate immunity and inflammation. Here we show that genetic deficiency in Peli1, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, attenuated the induction of proinflammatory cytokines by ligands of TLR3 and TLR4 and rendered mice resistant to septic shock. Peli1 was required for TLR3-induced activation of IkappaB kinase (IKK) and its 'downstream' target, transcription factor NF-kappaB, but was dispensable for IKK-NF-kappaB activation induced by several other TLRs and the interleukin 1 (IL-1) receptor. Notably, Peli1 bound to and ubiquitinated RIP1, a signaling molecule that mediates IKK activation induced by the TLR3 and TLR4 adaptor TRIF. Our findings suggest that Peli1 is a ubiquitin ligase needed for the transmission of TRIF-dependent TLR signals.

NF-kappa B1 p105 regulates T cell homeostasis and prevents chronic inflammation.

Transcription factor NF-kappaB is regulated by a family of inhibitors, IkappaBs, as well as the NF-kappaB1 and NF-kappaB2 precursor proteins, p105 and p100. Although the different NF-kappaB inhibitors can all inhibit NF-kappaB in vitro, their physiological functions are incompletely understood. In this study, we demonstrate that p105 plays an important role in the regulation of T cell homeostasis and prevention of chronic inflammation. Mice lacking p105, but expressing the mature NF-kappaB1 p50, spontaneously develop intestinal inflammation with features of human inflammatory bowel disease. This inflammatory disorder occurs under specific pathogen-free conditions and critically involves T cells. Consistently, the p105-deficient mice have reduced frequency of naive T cells and increased frequency of memory/effector T cells in the peripheral lymphoid organs. Although p105 is dispensable for the production of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells, p105 deficiency renders CD4 T cells more resistant to Treg-mediated inhibition. We further show that the loss of p105 results in hyperproduction of Th17 subset of inflammatory T cells. Together, these findings suggest a critical role for NF-kappaB1 p105 in the regulation of T cell homeostasis and differentiation and the control of chronic inflammation.

Regulation of IkappaB kinase-related kinases and antiviral responses by tumor suppressor CYLD.

The IkappaB kinase (IKK)-related kinases, IKKepsilon and TBK1, participate in the induction of type I interferons (IFNs) during viral infections. Deregulated activation of IKKepsilon and TBK1 also contributes to the abnormal cell survival and transformation. However, how these kinases are negatively regulated remains unclear. We show here that the tumor suppressor CYLD has an essential role in preventing aberrant activation of IKKepsilon/TBK1. CYLD deficiency causes constitutive activation of IKKepsilon/TBK1, which is associated with hyper-induction of IFNs in virus-infected cells. We further show that CYLD targets a cytoplasmic RNA sensor, RIG-I, and inhibits the ubiquitination of this IKKepsilon/TBK1 stimulator. Consistent with the requirement of ubiquitination in RIG-I function, CYLD potently inhibits RIG-I-mediated activation of the IFN-beta promoter. These findings establish CYLD as a key negative regulator of IKKepsilon/TBK1 and suggest a role for CYLD in the control of RIG-I ubiquitination.

Deubiquitinating enzyme CYLD negatively regulates RANK signaling and osteoclastogenesis in mice.

Osteoclastogenesis is a tightly regulated biological process, and deregulation can lead to severe bone disorders such as osteoporosis. The regulation of osteoclastic signaling is incompletely understood, but ubiquitination of TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) has recently been shown to be important in mediating this process. We therefore investigated the role of the recently identified deubiquitinating enzyme CYLD in osteoclastogenesis and found that mice with a genetic deficiency of CYLD had aberrant osteoclast differentiation and developed severe osteoporosis. Cultured osteoclast precursors derived from CYLD-deficient mice were hyperresponsive to RANKL-induced differentiation and produced more and larger osteoclasts than did controls upon stimulation. We assessed the expression pattern of CYLD and found that it was drastically upregulated during RANKL-induced differentiation of preosteoclasts. Furthermore, CYLD negatively regulated RANK signaling by inhibiting TRAF6 ubiquitination and activation of downstream signaling events. Interestingly, we found that CYLD interacted physically with the signaling adaptor p62 and thereby was recruited to TRAF6. These findings establish CYLD as a crucial negative regulator of osteoclastogenesis and suggest its involvement in the p62/TRAF6 signaling axis.