Balancing dairy cattle diets for rumen nitrogen and methionine or all essential amino acids relative to metabolizable energy.

Improving the ability of diet formulation models to more accurately predict AA supply while appropriately describing requirements for lactating dairy cattle provides an opportunity to improve animal productivity, reduce feed costs, and reduce N intake. The goal of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity of a new version of the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS) to formulate diets for rumen N, Met, and all essential AA (EAA). Sixty-four high-producing dairy cattle were randomly assigned to 1 of the 4 following diets in a 14-wk longitudinal study: (1) limited metabolizable protein (MP), Met, and rumen N (Base), (2) adequate Met but limited MP and rumen N (Base + M), (3) adequate Met and rumen N, but limited MP (Base + MU), and (4) adequate MP, rumen N, and balanced for all EAA (Positive). All diets were balanced to exceed requirements for ME relative to maintenance and production, assuming a nonpregnant, 650-kg animal producing 40 kg of milk at 3.05% true protein and 4.0% fat. Dietary MP was 97.2, 97.5, 102.3, and 114.1 g/kg of dry matter intake for the Base, Base + M, Base + MU, and Positive diets, respectively. Differences were observed for dry matter intake and milk yield (24.1 to 24.7 and 39.4 to 41.1 kg/d, among treatments). Energy corrected milk, fat, and true protein yield were greater (2.9, 0.13, and 0.08 kg/d, respectively) in cows fed the Positive compared with the Base diet. Using the updated CNCPS, cattle fed the Base, Base + M, and Base + MU diets were predicted to have a negative MP balance (-231, -310, and -142 g/d, respectively), whereas cattle fed the Positive diet consumed 33 g of MP/d excess to ME supply. Bacterial growth was predicted to be depressed by 16 and 17% relative to adequate N supply for the Base and Base + M diets, respectively, which corresponded with the measured lower apparent total-tract NDF degradation. The study demonstrates that improvements in lactation performances can be achieved when rumen N and Met are properly supplied and further improved when EAA supply are balanced relative to requirements. Formulation using the revised CNCPS provided predictions for these diets, which were sensitive to changes in rumen N, Met, all EAA, and by extension MP supply.

Culture and mental health in Nepal: an interdisciplinary scoping review.

Efforts to address global mental health disparities have given new urgency to longstanding debates on the relevance of cultural variations in the experience and expression of distress for the design and delivery of effective services. This scoping review examines available information on culture and mental health in Nepal, a low-income country with a four-decade history of humanitarian mental health intervention. Structured searches were performed using PsycINFO, Web of Science, Medline, and Proquest Dissertation for relevant book chapters, doctoral theses, and journal articles published up to May 2017. A total of 38 publications met inclusion criteria (nine published since 2015). Publications represented a range of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, cultural psychiatry, and psychology and explored culture in relation to mental health in four broad areas: (1) cultural determinants of mental illness; (2) beliefs and values that shape illness experience, including symptom experience and expression and help-seeking; (3) cultural knowledge of mental health and healing practices; and (4) culturally informed mental health research and service design. The review identified divergent approaches to understanding and addressing mental health problems. Results can inform the development of mental health systems and services in Nepal as well as international efforts to integrate attention to culture in global mental health.

Short communication: Variability in milk urea nitrogen and dairy total mixed ration composition in the northeastern United States.

The main objective of this survey was to examine variability in milk urea nitrogen (MUN) for Dairy Herd Improvement Association (DHIA) herds in the northeastern United States (the Northeast), examine trends in dairy cow diet composition, and determine potential relationships for MUN and diet composition. Trends in milk fat and protein concentrations, milk yield, days in milk on test day, and lactation number of the cows were also evaluated. The data set for the survey included 10,839,461 DHIA dairy cow records from 2004 to 2015 for 13 states (CT, DE, MA, MD, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VA, VT, and WV) and was retrieved from Dairy Records Management Systems (Raleigh, NC). Average (across states and years) milk yield, milk fat, and milk protein were 31.6 ± 0.24 kg/d, 3.85 ± 0.021%, and 3.13 ± 0.013%, respectively. No obvious trends were observed for milk fat or protein content, but milk yield steadily increased during the survey period. Milk urea N concentration averaged 13.3 ± 0.13 mg/dL, with no obvious or consistent trends. Examination of variability in dairy feed cost and all milk price for the Northeast indicated that high MUN generally coincided with high feed cost and high milk price. For the diet composition survey, 9,707 records of total mixed ration (TMR) analyses, unrelated to the milk composition data set, from the Cumberland Valley Analytical Service (Maugansville, MD) database were examined. Concentration of TMR crude protein (CP) decreased from 17.1% in 2007 to 16.4% in 2015, but there was not an obvious trend in soluble protein concentration. Concentration of TMR neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and 24-h in vitro NDF degradability declined steadily during the survey period and was accompanied by a steady increase in TMR starch concentration. Examination of these unrelated data sets revealed lack of correlation between MUN and diet chemical composition. Thus, we conclude that individual cow MUN in Northeast dairy herds fluctuated between 2004 and 2015. It appeared that MUN followed variability in feed cost; however, ration feed ingredient data were not available to better define the reasons for the variations in MUN.

Effect of lignin linkages with other plant cell wall components on in vitro and in vivo neutral detergent fiber digestibility and rate of digestion of grass forages.

The objective of this study was to correlate in vitro and in vivo neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility (NDFD) with the chemical composition of forages and specific chemical linkages, primarily ester- and ether-linked para-coumaric (pCA) and ferulic acids (FA) in forages fed to dairy cattle. The content of acid detergent lignin (ADL) and its relationship with NDF does not fully explain the observed variability in NDFD. The ferulic and p-coumaric acid linkages between ADL and cell wall polysaccharides, rather than the amount of ADL, might be a better predictor of NDFD. Twenty-three forages, including conventional and brown midrib corn silages and grasses at various stages of maturity were incubated in vitro for measurement of 24-h and 96-h NDFD. Undigested and digested residues were analyzed for NDF, acid detergent fiber (ADF), ADL, and Klason lignin (KL); ester- and ether-linked pCA and FA were determined in these fractions. To determine whether in vitro observations of ester- and ether-linked pCA and FA and digestibility were similar to in vivo observations, 3 corn silages selected for digestibility were fed to 6 ruminally fistulated cows for 3 wk in 3 iso-NDF diets. Intact samples and NDF and ADF residues of diet, rumen, and feces were analyzed for ester- and ether-linked pCA and FA. From the in vitro study, the phenolic acid content (total pCA and FA) was highest for corn silages, and overall the content of ester- and ether-linked pCA and FA in both NDF and ADF residues were correlated with NDF digestibility parameters, reflecting the competitive effect of these linkages on digestibility. Also, Klason lignin and ADL were negatively correlated with ether-linked ferulic acid on an NDF basis. Overall, esterified FA and esterified pCA were negatively correlated with all of the measured fiber fractions on both a dry matter and an NDF basis. The lignin content of the plant residues and chemical linkages explained most of the variation in both rate and extent of NDF digestion but not uniformly among forages, ranging from 56 to 99%. The results from the in vivo study were similar to the in vitro data, demonstrating the highest total-tract aNDF digestibility (70%; NDF analysis conducted with α-amylase and sodium sulfite) for cows fed the corn silage with the lowest ester- and ether-linked pCA content in the NDF fraction. In this study, digestibility of forage fiber was influenced by the linkages among lignin and the carbohydrate moieties, which vary by hybrid and species and most likely vary by the agronomic conditions under which the plant was grown.

Management practices, physically effective fiber, and ether extract are related to bulk tank milk de novo fatty acid concentration on Holstein dairy farms.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship of management practices and dietary factors with de novo fatty acid concentration in bulk tank milk from commercial dairy farms milking Holstein cows. Farms were selected based on de novo fatty acid concentration during the 6 mo before the farm visit and were categorized as high de novo (HDN; 24.61 ± 0.75 g/100 g of fatty acids, mean ± standard deviation; n = 19) or low de novo (LDN; 23.10 ± 0.88 g/100 g of fatty acids; n = 20). Farms were visited once in February, March, or April 2015 and evaluated based on management and facility design known to affect cow behavior, physical and chemical characteristics of the diet, and ration formulation and forage analyses obtained from the farm's nutritionist. We observed no differences between HDN and LDN farms in farm size, time away from the pen for milking, days in milk, or body condition score. We detected no differences between HDN and LDN farms in milk fat or true protein yield; however, milk fat and protein content and de novo fatty acid yield per day were higher for HDN farms, as was gross income per unit of milk sold. High de novo farms tended to be more likely to deliver fresh feed twice versus once per day, have a freestall stocking density ≤110%, and provide ≥46 cm of feed bunk space per cow. We observed no detectable differences in forage quality or ration dry matter, crude protein, or starch content. However, ether extract was lower and physically effective neutral detergent fiber was higher for HDN farms. Feeding management, stocking density, dietary ether extract content, and the physical characteristics of the diet are related to de novo fatty acid, fat, and protein concentration in bulk tank milk from high-producing Holstein dairy farms.

Management, nutrition, and lactation performance are related to bulk tank milk de novo fatty acid concentration on northeastern US dairy farms.

This study investigated the relationship of management practices, dietary characteristics, milk composition, and lactation performance with de novo fatty acid (FA) concentration in bulk tank milk from commercial dairy farms with Holstein, Jersey, and mixed-breed cows. It was hypothesized that farms with higher de novo milk FA concentrations would more commonly use management and nutrition practices known to optimize ruminal conditions that enhance de novo synthesis of milk FA. Farms (n=44) located in Vermont and northeastern New York were selected based on a history of high de novo (HDN; 26.18±0.94g/100g of FA; mean ± standard deviation) or low de novo (LDN; 24.19±1.22g/100g of FA) FA in bulk tank milk. Management practices were assessed during one visit to each farm in March or April, 2014. Total mixed ration samples were collected and analyzed for chemical composition using near infrared spectroscopy. We found no differences in days in milk at the farm level. Yield of milk fat, true protein, and de novo FA per cow per day were higher for HDN versus LDN farms. The HDN farms had lower freestall stocking density (cows/stall) than LDN farms. Additionally, tiestall feeding frequency was higher for HDN than LDN farms. No differences between HDN and LDN farms were detected for dietary dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, starch, or percentage of forage in the diet. However, dietary ether extract was lower for HDN than LDN farms. This research indicates that overcrowded freestalls, reduced feeding frequency, and greater dietary ether extract content are associated with lower de novo FA synthesis and reduced milk fat and true protein yields on commercial dairy farms.

The Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System: Updates to the model and evaluation of version 6.5.

New laboratory and animal sampling methods and data have been generated over the last 10 yr that had the potential to improve the predictions for energy, protein, and AA supply and requirements in the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS). The objectives of this study were to describe updates to the CNCPS and evaluate model performance against both literature and on-farm data. The changes to the feed library were significant and are reported in a separate manuscript. Degradation rates of protein and carbohydrate fractions were adjusted according to new fractionation schemes, and corresponding changes to equations used to calculate rumen outflows and postrumen digestion were presented. In response to the feed-library changes and an increased supply of essential AA because of updated contents of AA, a combined efficiency of use was adopted in place of separate calculations for maintenance and lactation to better represent the biology of the cow. Four different data sets were developed to evaluate Lys and Met requirements, rumen N balance, and milk yield predictions. In total 99 peer-reviewed studies with 389 treatments and 15 regional farms with 50 different diets were included. The broken-line model with plateau was used to identify the concentration of Lys and Met that maximizes milk protein yield and content. Results suggested concentrations of 7.00 and 2.60% of metabolizable protein (MP) for Lys and Met, respectively, for maximal protein yield and 6.77 and 2.85% of MP for Lys and Met, respectively, for maximal protein content. Updated AA concentrations were numerically higher for Lys and 11 to 18% higher for Met compared with CNCPS v6.0, and this is attributed to the increased content of Met and Lys in feeds that were previously incorrectly analyzed and described. The prediction of postruminal flows of N and milk yield were evaluated using the correlation coefficient from the BLUP (R(2)BLUP) procedure or model predictions (R(2)MDP) and the concordance correlation coefficient. The accuracy and precision of rumen-degradable N and undegradable N and bacterial N flows were improved with reduced bias. The CNCPS v6.5 predicted accurate and precise milk yield according to the first-limiting nutrient (MP or metabolizable energy) with a R(2)BLUP=0.97, R(2)MDP=0.78, and concordance correlation coefficient=0.83. Furthermore, MP-allowable milk was predicted with greater precision than metabolizable energy-allowable milk (R(2)MDP=0.82 and 0.76, respectively, for MP and metabolizable energy). Results suggest a significant improvement of the model, especially under conditions of MP limitation.

Updating the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System feed library and analyzing model sensitivity to feed inputs.

The Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS) is a nutritional model that evaluates the environmental and nutritional resources available in an animal production system and enables the formulation of diets that closely match the predicted animal requirements. The model includes a library of approximately 800 different ingredients that provide the platform for describing the chemical composition of the diet to be formulated. Each feed in the feed library was evaluated against data from 2 commercial laboratories and updated when required to enable more precise predictions of dietary energy and protein supply. A multistep approach was developed to predict uncertain values using linear regression, matrix regression, and optimization. The approach provided an efficient and repeatable way of evaluating and refining the composition of a large number of different feeds against commercially generated data similar to that used by CNCPS users on a daily basis. The protein A fraction in the CNCPS, formerly classified as nonprotein nitrogen, was reclassified to ammonia for ease and availability of analysis and to provide a better prediction of the contribution of metabolizable protein from free AA and small peptides. Amino acid profiles were updated using contemporary data sets and now represent the profile of AA in the whole feed rather than the insoluble residue. Model sensitivity to variation in feed library inputs was investigated using Monte Carlo simulation. Results showed the prediction of metabolizable energy was most sensitive to variation in feed chemistry and fractionation, whereas predictions of metabolizable protein were most sensitive to variation in digestion rates. Regular laboratory analysis of samples taken on-farm remains the recommended approach to characterizing the chemical components of feeds in a ration. However, updates to the CNCPS feed library provide a database of ingredients that are consistent with current feed chemistry information and laboratory methods and can be used as a platform to formulate rations and improve the description of biology within the model.

Responses of late-lactation cows to forage substitutes in low-forage diets supplemented with by-products.

In response to drought-induced forage shortages along with increased corn and soy prices, this study was conducted to evaluate lactation responses of dairy cows to lower-forage diets supplemented with forage substitutes. By-product feeds were used to completely replace corn grain and soybean feeds. Forty-eight late-lactation cows were assigned to 1 of 4 diets using a randomized complete block design with a 2-wk covariate period followed by a 4-wk experimental period. The covariate diet contained corn grain, soybean meal, and 61% forage. Experimental diets contained chopped wheat straw (WS)/sugar beet pulp at 0/12, 3/9, 6/6, or 9/3 percentages of diet dry matter (DM). Corn silage (20%), alfalfa silage (20%), pelleted corn gluten feed (25.5%), distillers grains (8%), whole cottonseed (5%), cane molasses/whey blend (7%), and vitamin and mineral mix with monensin (2.5%) comprised the rest of diet DM. The WS/sugar beet pulp diets averaged 16.5% crude protein, 35% neutral detergent fiber, and 11% starch (DM basis). Cows consuming the experimental diets maintained a 3.5% fat- and protein-corrected milk production (35.2 kg; standard deviation=5.6 kg) that was numerically similar to that measured in the covariate period (35.3 kg; standard deviation=5.0 kg). Intakes of DM and crude protein declined linearly as WS increased, whereas neutral detergent fiber intake increased linearly. Linear increases in time spent ruminating (from 409 to 502 min/d) and eating (from 156 to 223 min/d) were noted as WS inclusion increased. Yields of milk fat and 3.5% fat-and protein-corrected milk did not change as WS increased, but those of protein and lactose declined linearly. Phosphorous intakes were in excess of recommended levels and decreased linearly with increasing WS inclusion. Nutritional model predictions for multiparous cows were closest to actual performance for the National Research Council 2001 model when a metabolizable protein basis was used; primiparous cow performance was better predicted by energy-based predictions made with the National Research Council or Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System models. Model predictions of performance showed a quadratic diet effect with increasing WS. Lactating dairy cows maintained production on low-forage diets that included forage substitutes, and in which by-product feeds fully replaced corn grain and soybean. However, longer-term studies are needed to evaluate animal performance and to improve model predictions of performance on these nontraditional diets.

Brown midrib corn silage fed during the peripartal period increased intake and resulted in a persistent increase in milk solids yield of Holstein cows.

The objective of this study was to evaluate transition cow performance when brown midrib corn silage (BMRCS; Mycogen F2F444) was included in the diet during the transition period, and to determine if any production response occurring during the first 3 wk of lactation would persist from wk 4 to 15 when a common diet was fed. Seventy Holstein dairy cows were blocked by parity (either second or third and greater) and calving date and randomly assigned to the CCS (a mixture of varieties of conventional corn silage) or BMRCS treatment. Diets were formulated with the objective of keeping all ration parameters the same, with the exception of neutral detergent fiber digestibility. Neutral detergent fiber digestibility values (30 h) for CCS and BMRCS averaged 56.8 and 73.8%, respectively. Prepartum rations contained 47% corn silage, 18% wheat straw, 7% alfalfa haylage, and 28% concentrate, and averaged 45% neutral detergent fiber (DM basis). Postpartum rations contained 40% corn silage, 15% alfalfa haylage, 1% straw, and 44% concentrate. Milk weights (3×/d) and dry matter intake were recorded daily, and milk composition was measured weekly. Cows fed BMRCS had higher dry matter intake during the 2-wk period before calving (14.3 vs. 13.2 kg/d) and the 3-wk period after calving (20.1 vs. 18.1 kg/d) than did cows fed CCS. Yields of milk, solids, and lactose were increased, whereas a trend was observed for a reduction in somatic cell counts and linear scores in the postpartum period for cows receiving BMRCS during the transition. A significant carryover effect of BMRCS was observed on production from wk 4 to 15 when the common diet was fed, with yields of protein (1.36 vs. 1.30 kg/d), lactose (2.24 vs. 2.12 kg/d), and solids (5.82 vs. 5.51 kg/d) increasing significantly, and yields of fat-corrected milk, energy-corrected milk, and fat tending to increase during this period for cows that had been fed BMRCS. The increased intakes during the last 2 wk of the prepartum period in the BMRCS treatment were likely because of a reduction in fill, whereas the increased intakes in the postpartum period in cows fed the BMRCS were either because of the higher intakes during the prepartum period or because of a reduction in fill limitations in the postpartum period. The carryover response in wk 4 to 15 may have resulted from cows that received BMRCS during the transition period being in a more positive nutrient balance than cows fed CCS. The results of this study indicate the importance that digestible NDF can have in transition diets and the long-term production responses that can occur when intake is increased in the transition period.

Development and evaluation of equations in the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System to predict nitrogen excretion in lactating dairy cows.

Nitrogen excretion is of particular concern on dairy farms, not only because of its effects on water quality, but also because of the subsequent release of gases such as ammonia to the atmosphere. To manage N excretion, accurate estimates of urinary N (UN) and fecal N (FN) are needed. On commercial farms, directly measuring UN and FN is impractical, meaning that quantification must be based on predictions rather than measured data. The purpose of this study was to use a statistical approach to develop equations and evaluate the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System's (CNCPS) ability to predict N excretion in lactating dairy cows, and to compare CNCPS predictions to other equations in the literature. Urinary N was over-predicted by the CNCPS due to inconsistencies in N accounting within the model that partitioned more N to feces than urine, although predicted total N excretion was reasonable. Data to refine model predictions were compiled from published studies (n=32) that reported total collection N balance results. Considerable care was taken to ensure the data included in the development data set (n=104) accounted for >90% of the N intake (NI). Unaccounted N for the compiled data set was 1.47±4.60% (mean ± SD). The results showed that FN predictions could be improved by using a modification of a previously published equation: FN (g/d) = [[NI (g/kg of organic matter) × (1 - 0.842)] + 4.3 × organic matter intake (kg/d)] × 1.20, which, when evaluated against the compiled N balance data, had a squared coefficient of determination based on a mean study effect R(MP)(2) of 0.73, concurrent correlation coefficient (CCC) of 0.83 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 10.38 g/d. Urinary N is calculated in the CNCPS as the difference between NI and other N excretion and losses. Incorporating the more accurate FN prediction into the current CNCPS framework and correcting an internal calculation error considerably improved UN predictions (RMSE=12.73 g/d, R(MP)(2)=0.86, CCC=0.90). The changes to FN and UN translated into an improved prediction of total manure N excretion (RMSE=12.42 g/d, R(MP)(2)=0.96, CCC=0.97) and allows nutritionists and farm advisors to evaluate these factors during the ration formulation process.

A fecal test for assessing phosphorus overfeeding on dairy farms: evaluation using extensive farm data.

Managing P on dairy farms requires the assessment and monitoring of P status of the animals so that potential overfeeding may be minimized. Numerous published studies have demonstrated that for lactating dairy cows, increasing P concentrations in diets led to greater P excretion in feces. More recent work reported that inorganic P (P(i)) in 0.1% HCl extracts of feces (fecal extract P(i), g/kg) closely reflects dietary P changes. This has led to the proposal that 0.1% HCl fecal extract P(i) may serve as an indicator of the animal's P status (adequate or excessive) when compared with a benchmark value. Here, we present the results of an extensive evaluation of the proposed fecal P indicator test. With samples (n=575) from >90 farms, fecal total P (TP, g/kg) and fecal extract P were positively correlated with dietary P (X, g/kg): TP=1.92X - 0.17 (R2=0.36); fecal extract P=1.82X - 2.54 (R2=0.46). Fecal extract P was responsive to dietary P changes, whereas the remaining P, calculated as TP minus fecal extract P, was not. A provisional benchmark value of fecal extract P representing near-adequate P status was set at 4.75g/kg. Assessment of the farm data using the benchmark indicated that 316 out of 575 data points were associated with possible P overfeeding. Advantages of the fecal-based test over feed-based analysis to assess P status are discussed. The fecal extract P method is a simple and practical test that can be used as an assessment tool for helping dairy producers improve P management and reduce their environmental footprint.

Optimal dairy farm adjustments to increased utilization of corn distillers dried grains with solubles.

The purpose of this paper was to identify effective dairy farm management adjustments related to recent structural changes in agricultural commodity markets because of expanded biofuels production and other market factors. We developed a mathematical programming model of a representative dairy farm in New York State to estimate the effects of changes in the relative prices of important feed components on farm profitability, identify optimal adjustments for on-farm feed production, crop sales, and dairy rations that account for expanded utilization of corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), and point out potential implications of these adjustments on whole-farm nutrient planning. We mapped out an effective farm-level demand curve for DDGS by varying DDGS prices relative to other primary feed ingredients, which allowed us to compare DDGS utilization at alternative market conditions. Had the relative prices of major feed ingredients remained at their historical averages, our results suggest that there is only modest potential for feeding DDGS through supplementation in rations for dry cows and heifers as a substitute for soybean meal. However, the relatively lower DDGS prices experienced in 2008 imply an expanded optimal use of DDGS to include rations for lactating cows at 10% of the total mixed ration. Despite these expanded opportunities for DDGS at lower prices, the effects on farm net returns were modest. The most important considerations are perhaps those related to changes in the phosphorus (P) levels in the dairy waste. We showed that including moderate levels of DDGS (10%) in rations for lactating cows did not significantly increase P excretion. However, if the rations for dry cows and heifers were supplemented with DDGS, P excretion did increase, resulting in sizable increases of plant-available phosphorus applied to cropland well beyond crop nutrient requirements. Although our results show that it is economically optimal for the dairy producer to incorporate DDGS into these rations, some operations will be unable to accommodate the additional P because of existing nutrient management recommendations, soil P status, and the number of acres available for manure spreading.

Major advances in extension education programs in dairy production.

The dairy industry has seen structural changes in the last 25 yr that have an impact on extension programming. The number of cows in the United States has decreased by 17%, whereas the number of dairy farms has decreased by 74%. The average milk production per cow has increased from 5,394 to 8,599 kg/lactation. Even though there are fewer farms, dairy farm managers are asking for more specific and targeted information. The extension resources available have also decreased during this period. Because of these changes, shifts have taken place in extension programming and staffing. A key change has been a shift to subject matter-targeted programs and workshops. Extension has also incorporated and expanded use of the Internet. Discussion groups, subject matter courses, and searchable databases are examples of Internet use. There will be continuing shifts in the demographics of the US dairy industry that will influence future extension efforts. It is also probable that fewer extension professionals will be available to provide programming due to changes in funding sources at national, state, and local levels. Future shifts in extension programming will be needed to provide the information needs of the industry with a smaller number of extension workers.

Lactation performance of holstein cows fed fescue, orchardgrass, or alfalfa silage.

Perennial grasses are increasingly being used as an integral part of nutrient management plans, but fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) is often overlooked because of perceived intake problems. A 30-d study was conducted to evaluate the lactation performance of cows fed a fescue silage-based total mixed ration (TMR) compared with orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) silage-based TMR, when forages are harvested at recommended neutral detergent fiber (NDF) levels. Holstein cows (body weight [BW] = 627 +/- 66.0 kg, milk yield = 40.9 +/- 6.93 kg/d, parity = 2.6 +/- 1.44, days in milk = 152 +/- 24.5) were randomly assigned to treatment. Statistical design was a randomized complete block with 10 cows per treatment. The 5 treatments consisted of TMR using first-cutting alfalfa, and first- and second-cutting orchardgrass and tall fescue silage. Diets were formulated to provide 0.95% of BW as forage NDF and contained approximately 18% CP and 1.6 mcal/kg. This resulted in diets of about 30% NDF; for a 612-kg cow, approximately 5.8 kg/d of forage NDF was fed. Second-cutting, grass-based TMR had lower intake than alfalfa and first-cutting forage TMR. Cows consuming second-cutting orchardgrass had lower milk production than did cows consuming other forage TMR. Cows fed fescue TMR had higher milk production than those fed orchardgrass. Indigestible residues were higher, and NDF digestibilities were lower, in second-cutting forages vs. first-cutting forages, likely contributing to the differences observed in intake and resulting differences in milk production. Dairy cows consumed the first-cutting fescue TMR readily and performed as well as those on alfalfa or first-cutting, orchardgrass-based TMR in terms of lactation performance, but fescue and orchardgrass rations will require more concentrate in the ration than alfalfa.

Phosphorus reduction through precision feeding of dairy cattle.

A study was conducted on 4 dairy farms in the Cannonsville Reservoir Basin (Delaware County, NY) to identify feeding strategies in commercial dairy herds that will reduce manure phosphorus and mass farm phosphorus balance. Lactating cow diets on all 4 farms were evaluated monthly for 28 mo using the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System. Milk production and herd reproductive performance were measured monthly. Manure phosphorus content was measured every 6 mo. Reduced phosphorus diets (precision feeding) were implemented in 2 of the herds. Mean herd phosphorus intakes in the 4 herds ranged from 107 to 165% of requirement. Dietary phosphorus intakes in the 2 herds where diets were modified were reduced from 153% of requirement to 111%, an average reduction of 25%. Predicted phosphorus intakes and manure excretions were reduced 11.8 kg/yr per cow. After dietary adjustments in the 2 herds, fecal phosphorus concentrations decreased 33%. Milk production was not adversely affected by reduced phosphorus diets. Whole farm mass phosphorus balances (amount of phosphorus remaining on the farm) on the 2 farms were reduced 49%, with the percentage of imported phosphorus remaining on the farm reduced to less than 45%. Achieving feed phosphorus reductions similar to those of this study on all of the estimated 7000 to 8000 mature dairy cattle in the Cannonsville Basin could reduce feed phosphorus imports and manure phosphorus excretions more than 64,000 kg/yr. This would slow the rate of phosphorus accumulation in agricultural soils in the Cannonsville Basin, which over time could reduce the 50,000 kg/yr average total phosphorus loading of the Cannonsville Reservoir.

Phosphorus feeding levels and critical control points on dairy farms.

A viable and cost-effective approach to managing P on dairy farms is to minimize excess P in diets, which in turn leads to less excretion of P in manure without impairing animal performance. A questionnaire survey was conducted, coupled with on-site feed and fecal sample collection and analysis on dairy farms in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The purpose was to assess dietary P levels and to identify critical control points pertaining to P feeding management. Survey responses, 612 out of 2500 randomly selected farms, revealed a wide range of dietary P concentrations for lactating cows, from 3.6 to 7.0 g/kg of feed DM. The mean was 4.4 g/kg, which was 34% above the level recommended by the NRC for 27.9 kg milk/d, the mean milk yield in the survey. Higher P concentrations in diets were not associated with higher milk yields (n = 98, R2 = 0.057 for the survey farms; n = 92, R2 = 0.043 for farms selected for on-site sampling). However, higher dietary P led to higher P excretion in feces (n = 75, R2 = 0.429), with much of the increased fecal P being water soluble. Phosphorus concentrations in diet samples matched closely with P concentrations in formulated rations, with 67% of the feed samples deviating <10% from the formulations. On 84% of the survey farms, ration formulation was provided by professionals rather than producers themselves. Most producers were feeding more P than cows needed because it was recommended in the rations by these consultants. In conclusion, P fed to lactating cows averaged 34% above NRC recommendations; to reduce excess dietary P, ration formulation is the critical control point.

Influence of dietary nonfiber carbohydrate concentration and supplementation of sucrose on lactation performance of cows fed fescue silage.

There is interest in knowing if the source of nonfibrous carbohydrates (NFC) influences milk production and composition. Our objective was to determine the effects of source (starch or sugar) and level of NFC in the diet on these parameters. A 4 x 4 Latin square replicated five times using early-lactation (56 +/- 9 DIM) Holstein cows was used; cows were offered one of two levels of NFC and either no added sucrose or sucrose substituting for 10% of the corn. Diets were balanced to meet National Research Council requirements for total protein, energy, and minerals. Tall fescue silage was included at one of two levels (0.95 or 1.25% of BW as forage NDF), resulting in diets with 40 and 30% NFC. The remaining ingredients consisted of high-moisture corn, soybean meal, SoyPlus, minerals, and vitamins. Megalac (0.45 kg) was used in the low NFC diets. High NFC diets were lower (P < 0.01) in neutral detergent fiber (NDF; 31.5%) and crude protein (CP; 19.6%) than the low NFC diet (35.8% NDF and 21.0% CP). Sucrose containing diets were somewhat lower (P < 0.01) in NDF (33.1%) than the no sucrose added diets (34.3%), but diets did not differ in CP%. Cows offered the high NFC level produced more milk (39.6 kg/d; P < 0.05) than those offered the low level (38.3 kg/d), primarily due to higher dry matter intake (P < 0.05). Cows consuming the high NFC diet also had lower (P < 0.05) milk fat (3.25%) and milk urea nitrogen (MUN; 13.7 mg/dl), and higher (P < 0.05) milk protein (2.58%) and milk lactose (4.81%) concentrations than cows offered the low NFC level (3.46% milk fat, 17.5 mg/dl MUN, 2.51% milk protein, and 4.74% milk lactose). Fat yield was higher (P < 0.05) for cows fed low NFC diets than cows fed high NFC diets, whereas protein and fat yield were lower (P < 0.05) for cows fed low NFC diets than those fed high NFC diets. The NFC source did not influence dry matter intake or milk production or milk component yield (P > 0.05). Milk lactose (4.79%) and MUN (16.0 mg/dl) concentrations were higher (P < 0.05) for cows offered sucrose as a portion of the NFC compared with those not offered sucrose (4.76% milk lactose and 15.2 mg/dl MUN). Results suggest that cows fed sucrose may utilize diet nitrogen less efficiently than those not fed sucrose, when sucrose is replacing a portion of the high-moisture corn in the diet.

Digestibility by dairy cows of monosaccharide constituents in total mixed rations containing citrus pulp.

Ten lactating cows were divided into two groups and individually fed ad libitum one of two experimental total mixed rations (TMR) as follows: 1) a TMR containing 20% corn grain and 10% dry citrus pulp (high corn); and 2) a TMR containing 21% citrus pulp and 9% corn grain (high citrus pulp). Both TMR also contained corn silage (28%), legume haylage (19.5%), extruded full fat soybeans (13.5 to 14%), soybean meal (6.5%), and minerals and vitamins. Voluntary dry matter intake of cows consuming the high corn ration tended to be higher than for cows in the high citrus pulp group (22.2 vs. 20.7 +/- 1.0 kg/cow per day, respectively). Digestibility of NDF was higher for the TMR with high citrus pulp compared with the TMR with higher corn. Across treatments, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) glucose was more digestible than NDF xylose and uronic acids and less digestible than NDF arabinose, galactose, and mannose. Digestibility of total neutral detergent soluble carbohydrates was also higher in the high citrus pulp group (86.8, high citrus pulp vs. 80.3 +/- 1.7%, high corn); with glucose and uronic acids accounting for most of that difference. Consequently, higher total carbohydrate digestibility was obtained in the TMR containing higher citrus pulp compared with the TMR with a higher percentage of corn (77.1 and 72.5 +/- 1.0%, respectively). Slightly lower carbohydrate intake in cows fed higher citrus pulp was compensated by higher digestibility of carbohydrates and protein. Thereby, partial replacement of corn by citrus pulp in TMR of high producing dairy cows improved feed efficiency.

Whole-herd optimization with the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System. I. Predicting feed biological values for diet optimization with linear programming.

We developed a diet optimizer for least-cost diet formulation with the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS) using linear programming. The CNCPS model is intrinsically nonlinear, and feed biological values vary with animal and feed characteristics. To allow linear diet optimization, we first used the CNCPS model to generate biological values to characterize the energy and protein content of each feed for the specific group for which the diet was being formulated. The biological values used were metabolizable energy (Mcal/kg), metabolizable protein [(% dry matter (DM)], passage rate (%/h), bacteria yield efficiencies (g/g), and degradation rate of the carbohydrate B2 fraction (%/h). In addition, the ruminal balances for nitrogen and peptides were included in the optimizer to optimize ruminal degradation of fiber. The objective function was to minimize diet cost subject to animal requirement and feed availability constraints. The animal constraints were set by requirements for DM intake (kg/d), metabolizable energy (Mcal/kg), metabolizable protein (%DM), and effective neutral detergent fiber (%DM) for a given level of production. Data from a dairy farm were used to evaluate this linear diet optimizer. Across all classes of dairy cattle, the CNCPS 4.0 model typically obtained a solution in less than six iterations that met the requirements with nearly 100% accuracy. We conclude this linear optimizer can be used to accurately formulate least-cost diets with the CNCPS model.