Host-derived Interleukin 1α induces an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment via regulating monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation.

Tumor-associated macrophages exhibit high heterogeneity and contribute to the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Although numerous studies have demonstrated that extracellular factors promote macrophage proliferation and polarization, the regulatory mechanisms governing the differentiation process to generate phenotypically, and functionally diverse macrophage subpopulations remain largely unexplored. In this study, we examined the influence of interleukin 1α (IL-1α) on the development of an immunosuppressive TME using orthotopic transplantation murine models of breast cancer. Deletion of host Il1α led to the rejection of inoculated congenic tumors. Single-cell sequencing analysis revealed that CX3CR1+ macrophage cells were the primary sources of IL-1α in the TME. The absence of IL-1α reprogrammed the monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation process within the TME, characterized by a notable decrease in the subset of CX3CR+ ductal-like macrophages and an increase in iNOS-expressing inflammatory cells. Comparative analysis of gene signatures in both human and mouse macrophage subsets suggested that IL-1α deficiency shifted the macrophage polarization from M2 to M1 phenotypes, leading to enhanced cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in the TME. Importantly, elevated levels of IL-1α in human cancers were associated with worse prognosis following immunotherapy. These findings underscore the pivotal role of IL-1α in shaping an immune-suppressive TME through the regulation of macrophage differentiation and activity, highlighting IL-1α as a potential target for breast cancer treatment.

Human apical-out nasal organoids reveal an essential role of matrix metalloproteinases in airway epithelial differentiation.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) assembly/disassembly is a critical regulator for airway epithelial development and remodeling. Airway organoid is widely used in respiratory research, yet there is limited study to indicate the roles and mechanisms of ECM organization in epithelial growth and differentiation by using in vitro organoid system. Moreover, most of current Matrigel-based airway organoids are in basal-out orientation where accessing the apical surface is challenging. We present a human apical-out airway organoid using a biochemically defined hybrid hydrogel system. During human nasal epithelial progenitor cells (hNEPCs) differentiation, the gel gradually degrade, leading to the organoid apical surfaces facing outward. The expression and activity of ECM-degrading enzymes, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP7, MMP9, MMP10 and MMP13) increases during organoid differentiation, where inhibition of MMPs significantly suppresses the normal ciliation, resulting in increased goblet cell proportion. Moreover, a decrease of MMPs is found in goblet cell hyperplastic epithelium in inflammatory mucosa. This system reveals essential roles of epithelial-derived MMPs on epithelial cell fate determination, and provides an applicable platform enabling further study for ECM in regulating airway development in health and diseases.

Microsphere-Enabled Modular Formation of Miniaturized In Vitro Breast Cancer Models.

In search of effective therapeutics for breast cancers, establishing physiologically relevant in vitro models is of great benefit to facilitate the clinical translation. Despite extensive progresses, it remains to develop the tumor models maximally recapturing the key pathophysiological attributes of their native counterparts. Therefore, the current study aimed to develop a microsphere-enabled modular approach toward the formation of in vitro breast tumor models with the capability of incorporating various selected cells while retaining spatial organization. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres (150-200 mm) with tailorable pore size and surface topography are fabricated and used as carriers to respectively lade with breast tumor-associated cells. Culture of cell-laden microspheres assembled within a customized microfluidic chamber allowed to form 3D tumor models with spatially controlled cell distribution. The introduction of endothelial cell-laden microspheres into cancer-cell laden microspheres at different ratios would induce angiogenesis within the culture to yield vascularized tumor. Evaluation of anticancer drugs such as doxorubicin and Cediranib on the tumor models do demonstrate corresponding physiological responses. Clearly, with the ability to modulate microsphere morphology, cell composition and spatial distribution, microsphere-enabled 3D tumor tissue formation offers a high flexibility to satisfy the needs for pathophysiological study, anticancer drug screening or design of personalized treatment.

Polymer/copper nanocomplex-induced lysosomal cell death promotes tumor lymphocyte infiltration and synergizes anti-PD-L1 immunotherapy for triple-negative breast cancer.

Our previous research discovered that combining the PDA-PEG polymer with copper ions can selectively kill cancer cells. However, the precise mechanism by which this combination functions was not fully understood. This study revealed that the PDA-PEG polymer and copper ions form complementary PDA-PEG/copper (Poly/Cu) nanocomplexes by facilitating copper ion uptake and lysosomal escape. An in vitro study found that Poly/Cu killed 4T1 cells through a lysosome cell death pathway. Furthermore, Poly/Cu inhibited both the proteasome function and autophagy pathway and induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) in 4T1 cells. The Poly/Cu induced ICD coupled with the checkpoint blockade effect of the anti-PD-L1 antibody (aPD-L1) synergistically promoted immune cell penetration into the tumor mass. Benefiting from the tumor-targeting effect and cancer cell-selective killing effect of Poly/Cu complexes, the combinatory treatment of aPD-L1 and Poly/Cu effectively suppressed the progression of triple-negative breast cancer without inducing systemic side effects.

Type 17 mucosal-associated invariant T cells contribute to neutrophilic inflammation in patients with nasal polyps.

BACKGROUND: Immune regulation in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) with a neutrophilic endotype remains unclear. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are tissue-resident innate T lymphocytes that respond quickly to pathogens and promote chronic mucosal inflammation. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the roles of MAIT cells in neutrophilic CRSwNP. METHODS: Nasal tissues were obtained from 113 patients with CRSwNP and 29 control subjects. Peripheral and tissue MAIT cells and their subsets were analyzed by flow cytometry. Polyp-derived MAIT cells were analyzed by RNA sequencing to study their effects on neutrophils. RESULTS: Endotypes of CRSwNP were classified as paucigranulocytic (n = 21), eosinophilic (n = 29), neutrophilic (n = 39), and mixed granulocytic (n = 24). Frequencies of MAIT cells were significantly higher in neutrophilic (3.62%) and mixed granulocytic (3.60%) polyps than in control mucosa (1.78%). MAIT cell percentages positively correlated with local neutrophil counts. MAIT cells were more enriched in tissues than in matched PBMCs. The frequencies of MAIT1 subset or IFN-γ+ MAIT cells were comparable among control tissues and CRSwNP subtypes. The proportions of MAIT17 subset or IL-17A+ MAIT cells were significantly increased in neutrophilic or mixed granulocytic polyps compared with controls. RNA sequencing revealed type 17 and pro-neutrophil profiles in neutrophilic polyp-derived MAIT cells. In patients with neutrophilic CRSwNP, the proportions of MAIT and MAIT17 cells were positively correlated with local proinflammatory cytokines and symptom severity. In vitro experiments demonstrated that neutrophilic polyp-derived MAIT cells promoted neutrophil migration, survival, and activation. CONCLUSIONS: MAIT cells from neutrophilic CRSwNP demonstrate type 17 functional properties and promote neutrophil infiltration in nasal mucosa.

Biosynthetic Enzyme-guided Disease Correlation Connects Gut Microbial Metabolites Sulfonolipids to Inflammatory Bowel Disease Involving TLR4 Signaling.

The trillions of microorganisms inhabiting the human gut are intricately linked to human health. At the species abundance level, correlational studies have connected specific bacterial taxa to various diseases. While the abundances of these bacteria in the gut serve as good indicators for disease progression, understanding the functional metabolites they produce is critical to decipher how these microbes influence human health. Here, we report a unique biosynthetic enzyme-guided disease correlation approach to uncover microbial functional metabolites as potential molecular mechanisms in human health. We directly connect the expression of gut microbial sulfonolipid (SoL) biosynthetic enzymes to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in patients, revealing a negative correlation. This correlation is then corroborated by targeted metabolomics, identifying that SoLs abundance is significantly decreased in IBD patient samples. We experimentally validate our analysis in a mouse model of IBD, showing that SoLs production is indeed decreased while inflammatory markers are increased in diseased mice. In support of this connection, we apply bioactive molecular networking to show that SoLs consistently contribute to the immunoregulatory activity of SoL-producing human microbes. We further reveal that sulfobacins A and B, two representative SoLs, primarily target Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) to mediate immunomodulatory activity through blocking TLR4's natural ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding to myeloid differentiation factor 2, leading to significant suppression of LPS-induced inflammation and macrophage M1 polarization. Together, these results suggest that SoLs mediate a protective effect against IBD through TLR4 signaling and showcase a widely applicable biosynthetic enzyme-guided disease correlation approach to directly link the biosynthesis of gut microbial functional metabolites to human health.

Trim-Away in adult animals through Nano-ERASER and its application in cancer therapy.

Trim-Away is a versatile intracellular protein degradation pathway that has been extensively explored in vitro. However, the in vivo application of Trim-Away is limited at oocyte and zygote stages due to the lack of an in vivo practical approach for intracellular antibody delivery. To broaden the application of Trim-Away, especially for clinical use, we developed a nanogel-based Nano-ERASER system. Here, we demonstrated that the intracellular delivery of anti-programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) antibody through Nano-ERASER could effectively deplete PD-L1 in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells and induce cancer cell death. Furthermore, with the help of a tumor tissue-targeted nanogel, anti-PD-L1 antibody-loaded Nano-ERASER effectively inhibited tumor progression in a TNBC mouse model. These results confirmed that Nano-ERASER realized Trim-Away in adult animals for the first time, which could be an effective tool for disease treatment and studying gene/protein function both in vitro and in vivo.

microRNA-Based Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally by impeding mRNA translation or stability [...].

miR-489 Confines Uncontrolled Estrogen Signaling through a Negative Feedback Mechanism and Regulates Tamoxifen Resistance in Breast Cancer.

Approximately 75% of diagnosed breast cancer tumors are estrogen-receptor-positive tumors and are associated with a better prognosis due to response to hormonal therapies. However, around 40% of patients relapse after hormonal therapies. Genomic analysis of gene expression profiles in primary breast cancers and tamoxifen-resistant cell lines suggested the potential role of miR-489 in the regulation of estrogen signaling and development of tamoxifen resistance. Our in vitro analysis showed that loss of miR-489 expression promoted tamoxifen resistance, while overexpression of miR-489 in tamoxifen-resistant cells restored tamoxifen sensitivity. Mechanistically, we found that miR-489 is an estrogen-regulated miRNA that negatively regulates estrogen receptor signaling by using at least the following two mechanisms: (i) modulation of the ER phosphorylation status by inhibiting MAPK and AKT kinase activities; (ii) regulation of nuclear-to-cytosol translocation of estrogen receptor α (ERα) by decreasing p38 expression and consequently ER phosphorylation. In addition, miR-489 can break the positive feed-forward loop between the estrogen-Erα axis and p38 MAPK in breast cancer cells, which is necessary for its function as a transcription factor. Overall, our study unveiled the underlying molecular mechanism by which miR-489 regulates an estrogen signaling pathway through a negative feedback loop and uncovered its role in both the development of and overcoming of tamoxifen resistance in breast cancers.

Type 2 and Type 17 Invariant Natural Killer T Cells Contribute to Local Eosinophilic and Neutrophilic Inflammation and Their Function Is Regulated by Mucosal Microenvironment in Nasal Polyps.

Chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) is characterized by heterogeneous inflammatory endotypes of unknown etiology. Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are multifunctional innate T cells that exhibit Th1-, Th2-, and Th17-like characteristics. We investigated functional relationships between iNKT cells and inflammatory subtypes of CRSwNP. Eighty patients with CRSwNP and thirty-two control subjects were recruited in this study. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the frequencies and functions of iNKT cells and their subsets in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and tissues. Polyp tissue homogenates were used to study the multifunctionality of iNKT cells. iNKT cells were significantly increased in polyps (0.41%) than in control mucosa (0.12%). iNKT cells were determined in the paucigranunlocytic (n=20), eosinophilic (n=22), neutrophilic (n=23), and mixed granulocytic (n=13) phenotypes of CRSwNP. The percentages of iNKT cells and HLA-DR+PD-1+ subsets were lower in eosinophilic or mixed granulocytic polyps than those of other phenotypes. iNKT cells and subsets were enriched in polyp tissues than in matched PBMCs. The evaluation of surface markers, transcription factors, and signature cytokines indicated that the frequencies of iNKT2 and iNKT17 subsets were significantly increased in eosinophilic and neutrophilic polyps, respectively, than in the paucigranulocytic group. Moreover, the production of type 2 (partially dependent on IL-7) and type 17 (partially dependent on IL-23) iNKT cells could be stimulated by eosinophilic and neutrophilic homogenates, respectively. Our study revealed that type 2 and type 17 iNKT cells were involved in eosinophilic and neutrophilic inflammation, respectively, in CRSwNP, while different inflammatory microenvironments could modulate the functions of iNKT cells, suggesting a role of iNKT cells in feedback mechanisms and local inflammation.

Identification and Biosynthesis of Pro-Inflammatory Sulfonolipids from an Opportunistic Pathogen Chryseobacterium gleum.

Sulfonolipids (SoLs) are a unique class of sphingolipids featuring a sulfonate group compared to other sphingolipids. However, the biological functions and biosynthesis of SoLs in human microbiota have been poorly understood. Here, we report the discovery and isolation of SoLs from a human opportunistic pathogen Chryseobacterium gleum DSM16776. We show for the first time the pro-inflammatory activity of SoLs with mice primary macrophages. Furthermore, we used both in vivo heterologous expression and in vitro biochemical reconstitution to characterize two enzymes, cysteate synthase and cysteate fatty acyltransferase, that are specifically involved in the biosynthesis of SoLs rather than other sphingolipids. Based on these two SoL-specific enzymes, our bioinformatics analysis showed a wider distribution of SoL biosynthetic genes in microbes that had not been reported as SoL producers. We selected four of these strains and verified their cysteate synthase and cysteate fatty acyltransferase activities in SoL biosynthesis. Considering this wider distribution of SoL-specific biosynthetic enzymes in the context of SoLs' activity in mediating inflammation, a common and fundamental biological process, it may suggest a more comprehensive function of SoLs at play.

Correlational networking guides the discovery of unclustered lanthipeptide protease-encoding genes.

Bacterial natural product biosynthetic genes, canonically clustered, have been increasingly found to rely on hidden enzymes encoded elsewhere in the genome for completion of biosynthesis. The study and application of lanthipeptides are frequently hindered by unclustered protease genes required for final maturation. Here, we establish a global correlation network bridging the gap between lanthipeptide precursors and hidden proteases. Applying our analysis to 161,954 bacterial genomes, we establish 5209 correlations between precursors and hidden proteases, with 91 prioritized. We use network predictions and co-expression analysis to reveal a previously missing protease for the maturation of class I lanthipeptide paenilan. We further discover widely distributed bacterial M16B metallopeptidases of previously unclear biological function as a new family of lanthipeptide proteases. We show the involvement of a pair of bifunctional M16B proteases in the production of previously unreported class III lanthipeptides with high substrate specificity. Together, these results demonstrate the strength of our correlational networking approach to the discovery of hidden lanthipeptide proteases and potentially other missing enzymes for natural products biosynthesis.

Cancer resistance to immunotherapy: What is the role of cancer stem cells?

Immunotherapy is an emerging form of cancer therapy that is associated with promising outcomes. However, most cancer patients either do not respond to immunotherapy or develop resistance to treatment. The resistance to immunotherapy is poorly understood compared to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Since immunotherapy targets cells within the tumor microenvironment, understanding the behavior and interactions of different cells within that environment is essential to adequately understand both therapy options and therapy resistance. This review focuses on reviewing and analyzing the special features of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which we believe may contribute to cancer resistance to immunotherapy. The mechanisms are classified into three main categories: mechanisms related to surface markers which are differentially expressed on CSCs and help CSCs escape from immune surveillance and immune cells killing; mechanisms related to CSC-released cytokines which can recruit immune cells and tame hostile immune responses; and mechanisms related to CSC metabolites which modulate the activities of infiltrated immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. This review also discusses progress made in targeting CSCs with immunotherapy and the prospect of developing novel cancer therapies.

The diverse roles of YAP in the regulation of human nasal epithelial remodeling.

Yes-associated protein (YAP) is essential in maintaining tissue size. Aberrant epithelial remodeling is a key pathological alteration in both inflammation and benign tumors in nasal mucosa. We sought to investigate the expression and localization patterns of YAP in remodeled nasal epithelium of basal cell hyperplasia, goblet cell metaplasia and squamous metaplasia. YAP expression patterns were evaluated in tissues obtained from patients with NP (n = 45) and IP (n = 27), and control subjects with septal deviation (n = 17) and tissue-derived primary cell cultures. Compared to the normal epithelium, expressions of YAP were significantly higher in basal cell hyperplasia (NP, 11.4-fold; IP, 19.6-fold), followed by squamous metaplasia (8.2-fold) and mild to moderate goblet cell metaplasia (2.9-fold); while their expression was lower in severe goblet cell metaplasia (3.3-fold). Our resultsshowed that: 1) ectopic nuclear YAP expression associated with p63+ basal cell hyperplasia and the high proliferative potential epithelial cells; 2) increase of cytoplasmic YAP correlated with mild to moderate goblet cell metaplasia; 3) increase of cytoplasmic YAP correlated with squamous cell metaplasia. The in vitro cell model also demonstrated almost concordant changes of YAP with the mucosa findings. Different YAP expression and localization patterns should play critical but differential roles in the nasal epithelial remodeling processes under mucosal inflammation and benign tumor formation.

Immunogenic Cell Death: A Step Ahead of Autophagy in Cancer Therapy.

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) plays a major role in providing long lasting protective antitumor immunity by the chronic exposure of damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the tumor microenvironment (TME). DAMPs are essential for attracting immunogenic cells to the TME, maturation of DCs, and proper presentation of tumor antigens to the T cells so they can kill more cancer cells. Thus for the proper release of DAMPs, a controlled mechanism of cell death is necessary. Drug induced tumor cell killing occurs by apoptosis, wherein autophagy may act as a shield protecting the tumor cells and sometimes providing multi-drug resistance to chemotherapeutics. However, autophagy is required for the release of ATP as it remains one of the key DAMPs for the induction of ICD. In this review, we discuss the intricate balance between autophagy and apoptosis and the various strategies that we can apply to make these immunologically silent processes immunogenic. There are several steps of autophagy and apoptosis that can be regulated to generate an immune response. The genes involved in the processes can be regulated by drugs or inhibitors to amplify the effects of ICD and therefore serve as potential therapeutic targets.

Presence of Tertiary Lymphoid Organ in Nasal Inverted Papilloma Is Correlated with Eosinophil Infiltration and Local Immunoglobulin Production.

INTRODUCTION: Nasal inverted papilloma (NIP) is a benign tumour with multiple inflammatory cell infiltration. Tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) support local antibody production and play important roles in airway inflammation. However, the evidence of TLOs and local immunoglobulins in NIP has not been reported yet. We investigated the presence of TLOs and immunoglobulins in NIP tissues and their association with the clinical-pathological characteristics of NIPs. METHODS: We analyzed the occurrence and composition of TLOs and local immunoglobulins by immunohistochemistry and evaluated the lymph organogenesis associated genes and cytokines by quantitative qPCR and Luminex assays, respectively, in papilloma tissues from 84 NIP cases. RESULTS: TLOs were present in 54% (45/84) of the NIP patients but not in control subjects. TLOs were composed of T cells, B cells, follicular dendritic cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells. Compared to NIP tissues without TLOs, tissues with TLOs showed significantly higher eosinophil infiltration levels (3.5-fold), elevation of lymphorganogenic genes (CXCL12, CXCL13, CCL20, CCL21, CD21L, and lymphotoxin alpha and beta), and increased Th17 (IL-21, IL-22, and GM-CSF) and Th2 (IL-5 and IL-13) cytokine production. Moreover, NIP with TLOs demonstrated a higher number of follicular T helper cells and immunoglobulin-producing plasma cells (CD138+ IgA+, CD138+ IgM+, CD138+ IgE+, and CD138+ IgG+) than those without TLOs, and these antibody-producing cells were positively correlated with the eosinophil number. CONCLUSION: The high frequency of TLOs and excess local immunoglobulin production are associated with an eosinophilic and Th2 skew microenvironment in the NIP mucosa, which would contribute to an important immunopathogenic response during NIP pathogenesis.

Local IL-17 positive T cells are functionally associated with neutrophil infiltration and their development is regulated by mucosal microenvironment in nasal polyps.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: IL-17 plays essential roles in neutrophilic inflammation in the lower respiratory tract, however, the characteristics of local IL-17+ T cells in nasal inflammatory mucosa are not fully understood. We investigated the roles of IL-17+ T cells in regulating neutrophil infiltration and the effect of the mucosal microenvironment in modulating IL-17+ T cell differentiation in CRSwNP tissues. SUBJECTS: 47 polyp tissues from chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) patients without corticosteroid therapy and 26 tissues from healthy mucosa were obtained. METHODS: Immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were used to analyze the neutrophil infiltration, local IL-17+ T cell subsets, as well as cytokine producing profiles of IL-17+ T cell; tissue homogenates were used to study neutrophil migration and IL-17+ T cell differentiation. RESULTS: Increase of IL-17+ cells and IL-17+ T cell subsets was significant in polyp tissues versus controls, IL-17+ cell number was positively correlated with neutrophil infiltration; while homogenates from polyp tissues with high IL-17 promoted neutrophil migration in vitro. IL-17 response was found in polyp-derived T cells upon Staphylococcus aureus infection. IL-17+ T cells were also down-regulated in polyps from patients treated with glucocorticoid steroids, and exhibited poly-functionality patterns in polyp tissues. Finally, IL-17+ T cell differentiation could be induced by IL-23, and homogenates from polyps could enhance IL-17+ T cell development. CONCLUSIONS: This study determined a functional association of IL-17+ T cells with neutrophils in CRSwNP, and revealed that polyp microenvironment could promote IL-17+ T cell differentiation, suggesting a potential feedback role for IL-17+ T cell development and local neutrophilic inflammation.

Emodin reduces Breast Cancer Lung Metastasis by suppressing Macrophage-induced Breast Cancer Cell Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and Cancer Stem Cell formation.

Our previous studies demonstrated that the natural compound emodin blocks the tumor-promoting feedforward interactions between cancer cells and macrophages, and thus ameliorates the immunosuppressive state of the tumor microenvironment. Since tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) also affect epithelial mesenchymal-transition (EMT) and cancer stem cell (CSC) formation, here we aimed to test if emodin as a neoadjuvant therapy halts breast cancer metastasis by attenuating TAM-induced EMT and CSC formation of breast cancer cells. Methods: Bioinformatical analysis was performed to examine the correlation between macrophage abundance and EMT/CSC markers in human breast tumors. Cell culture and co-culture studies were performed to test if emodin suppresses TGF-ß1 or macrophage-induced EMT and CSC formation of breast cancer cells, and if it inhibits breast cancer cell migration and invasion. Using mouse models, we tested if short-term administration of emodin before surgical removal of breast tumors halts breast cancer post-surgery metastatic recurrence in the lungs. The effects of emodin on TGF-ß1 signaling pathways in breast cancer cells were examined by western blots and immunofluorescent imaging. Results: Macrophage abundance positively correlates with EMT and CSC markers in human breast tumors. Emodin suppressed TGF-ß1 production in breast cancer cells and macrophages and attenuated TGF-ß1 or macrophage-induced EMT and CSC formation of breast cancer cells. Short-term administration of emodin before surgery halted breast cancer post-surgery metastatic recurrence in the lungs by reducing tumor-promoting macrophages and suppressing EMT and CSC formation in the primary tumors. Mechanistic studies revealed that emodin inhibited both canonical and noncanonical TGF-ß1 signaling pathways in breast cancer cells and suppressed transcription factors key to EMT and CSC. Conclusion: Natural compound emodin suppresses EMT and CSC formation of breast cancer cells by blocking TGF-ß1-mediated crosstalk between TAMs and breast cancer cells. Our study provides evidence suggesting that emodin harbors the potential for clinical development as a new effective and safe agent to halt metastatic recurrence of breast cancer.

Publisher Correction: Early-onset colorectal cancer: initial clues and current views.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.