Nano-sized Soluplus® polymeric micelles enhance the induction of tetanus toxin neutralising antibody response following transcutaneous immunisation with tetanus toxoid.

The use of Soluplus® polymeric micelles as a novel adjuvant for tetanus toxoid (TTxd) in transcutaneous immunisation was evaluated. TTxd was added to Soluplus® polymeric micelles to form TTxd-Soluplus® nano-aggregates with a size of 68nm. Non-adjuvanted TTxd commonly induces very poor antibody response by the transcutaneous route. However, in this study, the use of TTxd-Soluplus® resulted in a significant increase in the antibody response to TTxd, which was similar to that induced in the presence of CPG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CPG-ODNs) adjuvant. The toxin neutralising potency of the immune sera induced by TTxd-Soluplus® was also much stronger than that from TTxd alone, in a passive transfer experiment in mice. Soluplus® also enhanced the immunogenicity of the toxoid when TTxd-Soluplus® was stored at 4°C for 4weeks, but not at higher temperatures. Confocal microscopy imaging showed a much higher uptake of TTxd in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin when it was associated with Soluplus®, suggesting that the mechanism for Soluplus® adjuvanticity is through enhanced uptake of the TTxd through the skin. Overall, our findings demonstrated that Soluplus® is an effective novel adjuvant for transcutaneous immunisation.

Amphiphilic polyallylamine based polymeric micelles for siRNA delivery to the gastrointestinal tract: in vitro investigations.

Targeting the gastrointestinal (GI) tract represents a promising strategy for local or systemic delivery of nucleic acid-based therapeutics. The development of a nano-carrier for siRNA delivery via the GI tract would enable localised therapy for a range of gastrointestinal diseases. Previously, nano-sized polymeric micelles (PM) formed by a variety of amphiphilic poly(allylamine) (PAA) derivatives have shown potential for oral delivery of hydrophobic drugs and bioactive peptides. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of these amphiphilic PAA-based PM for siRNA delivery via the GI tract. The physicochemical characteristics of PAA·siRNA transfection complexes and their biological efficacy in vitro were investigated. Physicochemical profiles demonstrated that PAAs and siRNA self-assembled into complexes with nano-sized diameters (150-300 nm) and cationic surface charge (+ 20 to 30 mV). The PAA·siRNA complexes were stable in the presence of salt solutions and simulated gastric/intestinal fluids. In undifferentiated Caco-2 cells, PAA·siRNA complexes achieved up to 35% cellular uptake, with successful siRNA release from endosomes/lysosomes and significant luciferase gene knockdown. These results highlight the potential of these nano-sized PM for siRNA oral delivery via the GI tract for treatment of gastrointestinal diseases.

A review on comb-shaped amphiphilic polymers for hydrophobic drug solubilization.

Comb-shaped amphiphilic polymers are rapidly emerging as an alternative approach to amphiphilic block copolymers for hydrophobic drug solubilization. These polymers consist of a homopolymer or copolymer backbone to which hydrophobic and hydrophilic pendant groups can be grafted resulting in a comb-like architecture. The hydrophobic pendants may consist of homopolymers, copolymers and other low-molecular weight hydrophobic structures. In this review, we focus on hydrophobically modified preformed homopolymers. Comb-shaped amphiphilic polymers possess reduced critical aggregation concentration values compared with traditional surfactant micelles indicating increased stability with decreased disruption experienced on dilution. They have been fabricated with diverse architectures and multifunctional properties such as site-specific targeting and external stimuli-responsive nature. The application of comb-shaped amphiphilic polymers is expanding; here we report on the progress achieved so far in hydrophobic drug solubilization for both intravenous and oral delivery.

Dilemmas in the reliable estimation of the in-vitro cell viability in magnetic nanoparticle engineering: which tests and what protocols?

Magnetic nanoparticles [MNPs] made from iron oxides have many applications in biomedicine. Full understanding of the interactions between MNPs and mammalian cells is a critical issue for their applications. In this study, MNPs were coated with poly(ethylenimine) [MNP-PEI] and poly(ethylene glycol) [MNP-PEI-PEG] to provide a subtle difference in their surface charge and their cytotoxicity which were analysed by three standard cell viability assays: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium [MTS], CellTiter-Blue and CellTiter-Glo (Promega, Southampton, UK) in SH-SY5Y and RAW 264.7 cells The data were validated by traditional trypan blue exclusion. In comparison to trypan blue manual counting, the MTS and Titer-Blue assays appeared to have consistently overestimated the viability. The Titer-Glo also experienced a small overestimation. We hypothesise that interactions were occurring between the assay systems and the nanoparticles, resulting in incorrect cell viability evaluation. To further understand the cytotoxic effect of the nanoparticles on these cells, reactive oxygen species production, lipid peroxidation and cell membrane integrity were investigated. After pegylation, the MNP-PEI-PEG possessed a lower positive surface charge and exhibited much improved biocompatibility compared to MNP-PEI, as demonstrated not only by a higher cell viability, but also by a markedly reduced oxidative stress and cell membrane damage. These findings highlight the importance of assay selection and of dissection of different cellular responses in in-vitro characterisation of nanostructures.

The use of nano polymeric self-assemblies based on novel amphiphilic polymers for oral hydrophobic drug delivery.

PURPOSE: To investigate the use of nano self-assemblies formed by polyallylamine (PAA) modified with 5 or 10% mole fluorenylmethoxy carbonyl (Fmoc(5)/(10)), dimethylamino-1-naphthalenesulfonyl (Dansyl(5)/(10)) and 5% mole cholesteryl group (Ch(5)) for oral hydrophobic drug delivery. METHODS: Propofol, griseofulvin and prednisolone were loaded into amphiphilic PAAs. Particle size and morphology of drug-loaded self-assemblies were determined using photon correlation spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Solubilising capacity, in vitro drug release and formulation stability were analysed by HPLC, and in vitro biocompatibility studies (haemolysis and cytotoxicity) were carried out on bovine erythrocytes and Caco-2 cells, respectively. Dansyl(10) and Ch(5) griseofulvin formulations were administered intra-gastrically to rats, and drug plasma levels were analysed by HPLC. RESULTS: Drug-encapsulated self-assemblies typically have hydrodynamic size of 300-400 nm. Dansyl(10) exhibited universal drug solubiliser property and had significantly improved prednisolone, griseofulvin and propofol solubility by 145, 557 and 224-fold, respectively. Fmoc polymers resulted in modest drug solubility improvement. These polymers were non-haemolytic, did not enhance cytotoxicity compared to unmodified PAA, and demonstrated significant increase in griseofulvin plasma concentration compared to griseofulvin in water after oral administration. CONCLUSIONS: Ch(5) and Dansyl(10) showed promising potential as nano-carriers for oral hydrophobic drug delivery.

Systemic delivery of therapeutic small interfering RNA using a pH-triggered amphiphilic poly-L-lysine nanocarrier to suppress prostate cancer growth in mice.

Prostate cancer is associated with high mortality and new therapeutic strategies are necessary for improved patient outcome. The utilisation of potent, sequence-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) to facilitate down-regulation of complementary mRNA sequences in vitro and in vivo has stimulated the development of siRNA-based cancer therapies. However, the lack of an effective siRNA delivery system significantly retards clinical application. Amphiphilic polycations with 'stealth' capacity have previously been synthesised by PEGylation of poly-l-lysine-cholic acid (PLL-CA). The benzoic imine linker between PEG and PLL-CA was designed to be stable at physiological pH but cleavable at lower pHs, consistent with the extracellular environment of tumours and the interior of endosomes/lysosomes. The selective hydrolysis of the PEG linker at these targeted sites should provide enhanced cellular uptake and endosomal escape while simultaneously ensuring prolonged blood circulation times. In this study, physicochemical profiling demonstrated nano-complex formation between the PLL derivatives and siRNA (200-280 nm in diameter). At physiological pH only a slight cationic surface charge (<20 mV) was detected, due to the masking effect of the PEG. In contrast, significantly higher positive charges (∼20 to 30 mV and >40 mV) were detected upon hydrolysis of the PEG linker at acidic pHs (pH=6.8 and 5.5, respectively). The PEGylated complexes were stable in serum without significant aggregation or decomplexation of siRNA for up to 48 h. At the cellular level, PEG-PLLs were comparable with the commercial carrier INTERFRin, in terms of cellular uptake, endosomal escape and in vitro reporter gene knockdown. In vivo, utilising a mouse model grafted with prostate carcinoma, significant tumour suppression was achieved using PEGylated complexes without marked toxicity or undesirable immunological response, this was accompanied by a simultaneous reduction in target mRNA levels. In summary, the advantages of these vectors include: the in vitro and in vivo silencing efficiency, and the low toxicity and immunogenicity.

Nano self-assemblies based on cholate grafted poly-L-lysine enhanced the solubility of sterol-like drugs.

The physicochemical compatibility between amphiphilic polymers and hydrophobic drugs has been recognized as an important issue for improving the drug solubilisation in polymeric micelle formulations. In this work, poly-L-lysine (PLL) grafted by cholate pendants as the only hydrophobic moiety were synthesized in order to facilitate the solubilisation of sterol drugs. Results showed that micelles formed by cholate grafted PLL encapsulated significantly higher level of prednisolone and estradiol than palmitoylated PLL micelles, whereas the solubilisation capacity of non-sterol drug (griseofulvin) is inefficient for both polymers. This suggests that higher drug-polymer incorporation can be achieved by the inclusion of hydrophobic moieties with similar architecture as the drugs, i.e. 'drug-like' functional groups, which will be useful for the future design of colloidal systems for the encapsulation of specific drug.

Uptake and transport of novel amphiphilic polyelectrolyte-insulin nanocomplexes by Caco-2 cells--towards oral insulin.

PURPOSE: The influence of polymer architecture on cellular uptake and transport across Caco-2 cells of novel amphiphilic polyelectrolyte-insulin nanocomplexes was investigated. METHOD: Polyallylamine (PAA) (15 kDa) was grafted with palmitoyl chains (Pa) and subsequently modified with quaternary ammonium moieties (QPa). These two amphiphilic polyelectrolytes (APs) were tagged with rhodamine, and their uptake by Caco-2 cells or their polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with fluorescein isothiocyanate-insulin (FITC-insulin) uptake was investigated using fluorescence microscopy. The integrity of the monolayer was determined by measurement of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), and insulin transport across the monolayers was determined. RESULT: Pa and insulin were co-localised in cell membranes, while QPa complexes were found within the cytoplasm. QPa complex uptake was not affected by calcium, cytochalasin D or nocodazole. Uptake was reduced by co-incubation with sodium azide, an active transport inhibitor. Both polymers opened tight junctions reversibly, and insulin transport through monolayers increased when QPa or Pa was used. CONCLUSION: These APs have been shown to be taken up by Caco-2 cells and reversibly open tight cell junctions. Further work is required to optimise these formulations with a view to maximising their potential to facilitate oral delivery of insulin.

In vitro and in vivo anticancer activity of a novel nano-sized formulation based on self-assembling polymers against pancreatic cancer.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the in vitro and in vivo pancreatic anticancer activity of a nano-sized formulation based on novel polyallylamine grafted with 5% mole cholesteryl pendant groups (CH(5)-PAA). METHODS: Insoluble novel anticancer drug, Bisnaphthalimidopropyldiaaminooctane (BNIPDaoct), was loaded into CH(5)-PAA polymeric self-assemblies by probe sonication. Hydrodynamic diameters and polydispersity index measurements were determined by photon correlation spectroscopy. The in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of the formulation was carried out by the sulforhodamine B dye assay with human pancreatic adenocarcinoma BxPC-3 cells, while for the in vivo study, Xenograff mice were used. In vitro apoptotic cell death from the drug formulation was confirmed by flow cytometric analysis. RESULTS: The aqueous polymer-drug formulation had a mean hydrodynamic size of 183 nm. The drug aqueous solubility was increased from negligible concentration to 0.3 mg mL(-1). CH(5)-PAA polymer alone did not exhibit cytotoxicity, but the new polymer-drug formulation showed potent in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity. The mode of cell death in the in vitro study was confirmed to be apoptotic. The in vivo results revealed that the CH(5)-PAA alone did not have any anti-proliferative effect, but the CH(5)-PAA-drug formulation exhibited similar tumour reduction efficacy as the commercial drug, gemcitabine. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed formulation shows potential as pancreatic cancer therapeutics.

In vitro and in vivo characterisation of a novel peptide delivery system: amphiphilic polyelectrolyte-salmon calcitonin nanocomplexes.

The cationic peptide, salmon calcitonin (sCT) was complexed with the cationic amphiphilic polyelectrolyte, poly(allyl)amine, grafted with palmitoyl and quaternary ammonium moieties at pH 5.0 and 7.4 to yield particulates (sCT-QPa). The complexes were approximately 200 nm in diameter, had zeta potentials ranging from +20 to +50 mV, and had narrow polydispersity indices (PDIs). Differential scanning calorimetry revealed the presence of an interaction between sCT and QPa in the complexes. Electron microscopy confirmed the zeta-size data and revealed a vesicular bilayer structure with an aqueous core. Tyrosine- and Nile red fluorescence indicated that the complexes retained gross physical stability for up to 7 days, but that the pH 5.0 complexes were more stable. The complexes were more resistant to peptidases, serum and liver homogenates compared to free sCT. In vitro bioactivity was measured by cAMP production in T47D cells and the complexes had EC50 values in the nM range. While free sCT was unable to generate cAMP following storage for 7 days, the complexes retained approximately 33% activity. When the complexes were injected intravenously to rats, free and complexed sCT (pH 5.0 and 7.4) but not QPa reduced serum calcium over 120 min. Free and complexed sCT but not QPa also reduced serum calcium over 240 min following intra-jejunal administration. In conclusion, sCT-QPa nanocomplexes that have been synthesised are stable, bioactive and resistant to a range of peptidases. These enhanced features suggest that they may have the potential for improved efficacy when formulated for injected and oral delivery.

pH-triggered reversible "stealth" polycationic micelles.

Amphiphilic polycations with a "stealth" cationic nature have been designed and synthesized by the PEGylation of polycationic amphiphile via a novel pH responsible benzoic imine linker. The linkage is stable in aqueous solution at physiological pH but cleaves in slight acidic conditions such as the extracellular environment of solid tumor and endosomes. The polymeric micelle formed from the amphiphilic "stealth" polycation contains a pH-switchable cationic surface driven by the reversible detachment/reattachment of the shielding PEG chains due to the cleavage/formation process of the imine linkage. At physiological pH, the micellar surface was shielded by the PEG corona, leading to lower cytotoxicity and less hemolysis, whereas in a mild acidic condition like in endosomes or solid tumors, the deshielding of the PEG chains exposed the positive charge on the micellar surface and retained the membrane disrupting ability. The amphiphilic "stealth" polycation is potentially useful as a drug targeting system toward tumors via endocytosis and trafficked through the endosomal pathway.

Polyelectrolyte nanoparticles with high drug loading enhance the oral uptake of hydrophobic compounds.

In the pharmaceutical industry, orally active compounds are required to have sufficient water solubility to enable dissolution within the gastrointestinal tract prior to absorption. Limited dissolution within the gastrointestinal tract often reduces the bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs. To improve gastrointestinal tract dissolution, nonaqueous solvents are often used in the form of emulsions and microemulsions. Here, we show that oil-free polyelectrolyte nanosystems (micellar dispersions and 100-300 nm particles) prepared from poly(ethylenimines) derivatized with cetyl chains and quaternary ammonium groups are able to encapsulate high levels of hydrophobic drug (0.20 g of drug per g of polymer) for over 9 months, as demonstrated using cyclosporine A (log P = 4.3). The polyelectrolytes facilitate the absorption of hydrophobic drugs within the gastrointestinal tract by promoting drug dissolution and by a hypothesized mechanism involving paracellular drug transport. Polyelectrolyte nanoparticle drug blood levels are similar to those obtained with commercial microemulsion formulations. The polyelectrolytes do not promote absorption by inhibition of the P-glycoprotein efflux pump.