Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Genetic Counselors and Genetic Testing Among Certified Professional Midwives in Vermont: A Modified Grounded Theory Study.

Increasingly, pregnant people in the United States are choosing to give at birth at home, and certified professional midwives (CPMs) often attend these births. Care by midwives, including home birth midwives, has the potential to decrease unnecessary medical interventions and their associated health care costs, as well as to improve maternal satisfaction with care. However, lack of integration into the health care system affects the ability of CPMs to access standard medications and testing for their clients, including prenatal screening. Genetics and genomics are now a routine part of prenatal screening, and genetic testing can contribute to identifying candidates for planned home birth. However, research on genetics and midwifery care has not, to date, included the subset of midwives who attend the majority of planned home births, CPMs. The purpose of this study was to examine CPMs' access to, and perspectives on, one aspect of prenatal care, genetic counselors and genetic counseling services. Using semi-structured interviews and a modified grounded theory approach to narrative analysis, we identified three key themes: (1) systems-level issues with accessing information about genetic counseling and genetic testing; (2) practice-level patterns in information delivery and self-awareness about knowledge limitations; and (3) client-level concerns about the value of genetic testing relative to difficulties with access and stress caused by the information. The results of this study can be used to develop decision aids that include information about genetic testing and genetic counseling access for pregnant people intending home births in the United States.

Comparison of placenta consumers' and non-consumers' postpartum depression screening results using EPDS in US community birth settings (n=6038): a propensity score analysis.

BACKGROUND: Preventing postpartum depression (PPD) is the most common self-reported motivation for human maternal placentophagy, yet very little systematic research has assessed mental health following placenta consumption. Our aim was to compare PPD screening scores of placenta consumers and non-consumers in a community birth setting, using propensity score matching to address anticipated extensive confounding. METHODS: We used a medical records-based data set (n = 6038) containing pregnancy, birth, and postpartum information for US women who planned and completed community births. We first compared PPD screening scores as measured by the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) of individuals who consumed their placenta to those who did not, with regard to demographics, pregnancy characteristics, and history of mental health challenges. Matching placentophagic (n = 1876) and non-placentophagic (n = 1876) groups were then created using propensity scores. The propensity score model included more than 90 variables describing medical and obstetric history, demographics, pregnancy characteristics, and intrapartum and postpartum complications, thus addressing confounding by all of these variables. We then used logistic regression to compare placentophagic to non-placentophagic groups based on commonly-cited EPDS cutoff values (≥ 11; ≥ 13) for likely PPD. RESULTS: In the unmatched and unadjusted analysis, placentophagy was associated with an increased risk of PPD. In the matched sample, 9.9% of women who ate their placentas reported EPDS ≥ 11, compared to 8.4% of women who did not (5.5% and 4.8%, respectively, EPDS ≥ 13 or greater). After controlling for over 90 variables (including prior mental health challenges) in the matched and adjusted analysis, placentophagy was associated with an increased risk of PPD between 15 and 20%, depending on the published EPDS cutoff point used. Numerous sensitivity analyses did not alter this general finding. CONCLUSIONS: Placentophagic individuals in our study scored higher on an EPDS screening than carefully matched non-placentophagic controls. Why placentophagic women score higher on the EPDS remains unclear, but we suspect reverse causality plays an important role. Future research could assess psychosocial factors that may motivate some individuals to engage in placentophagy, and that may also indicate greater risk of PPD.

"I was able to take it back": Seeking VBAC after experiencing dehumanizing maternity care in a primary cesarean.

In this article, we present findings from a qualitative narrative analysis that examined the pregnancy, primary cesarean, and subsequent birth experiences of women in the United States. Using a maximal variation sampling strategy, we recruited participants via social media and networking to participate in semistructured interviews. Twenty-five women from diverse backgrounds and geographic locations across the U.S. participated, eight self-identified as racialized and seventeen as non-Hispanic, White. Data were analyzed iteratively using Clandinin and Connelly's approach to Narrative Inquiry. Across their narratives, participants described their experiences of maternity care that were either generally negative (dehumanizing care) or positive (humanized care). They further described how their experiences of dehumanizing or humanized care impacted their decision-making for subsequent births, mental health, relationships with the healthcare system, early parenting birth satisfaction, and family planning. Findings suggest that regardless of ultimate mode of birth, what was most important to women was how they are treated by their maternity care team. We suggest practice changes that may improve the experience of maternity care for primary cesarean and subsequent births, especially among those made marginal by systems of oppression.

Inequities in quality perinatal care in the United States during pregnancy and birth after cesarean.

OBJECTIVE: High-quality, respectful maternity care has been identified as an important birth process and outcome. However, there are very few studies about experiences of care during a pregnancy and birth after a prior cesarean in the U.S. We describe quantitative findings related to quality of maternity care from a mixed methods study examining the experience of considering or seeking a vaginal birth after cesarean (VBAC) in the U.S. METHODS: Individuals with a history of cesarean and recent (≤ 5 years) subsequent birth were recruited through social media groups to complete an online questionnaire that included sociodemographic information, birth history, and validated measures of respectful maternity care (Mothers on Respect Index; MORi) and autonomy in maternity care (Mother's Autonomy in Decision Making Scale; MADM). RESULTS: Participants (N = 1711) representing all 50 states completed the questionnaire; 87% planned a vaginal birth after cesarean. The most socially-disadvantaged participants (those less educated, living in a low-income household, with Medicaid insurance, and those participants who identified as a racial or ethnic minority) and participants who had an obstetrician as their primary provider, a male provider, and those who did not have a doula were significantly overrepresented in the group who reported lower quality maternity care. In regression analyses, individuals identified as Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) were less likely to experience autonomy and respect compared to white participants. Participants with a midwife provider were more than 3.5 times more likely to experience high quality maternity care compared to those with an obstetrician. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight inequities in the quality of maternal and newborn care received by birthing people with marginalized identities in the U.S. They also indicate the importance of increasing access to midwifery care as a strategy for reducing inequalities in care and associated poor outcomes.

The duration of spontaneous active and pushing phases of labour among 75,243 US women when intervention is minimal: A prospective, observational cohort study.

Background: Friedman's curve, despite acknowledged limitations, has greatly influenced labour management. Interventions to hasten birth are now ubiquitous, challenging the contemporary study of normal labour. Our primary purpose was to characterise normal active labour and pushing durations in a large, contemporary sample experiencing minimal intervention, stratified by parity, age, and body mass index (BMI). Methods: This is a secondary analysis of the national, validated Midwives Alliance of North America 4·0 (MANA Stats) data registry (n = 75,243), prospectively collected between Jan 1, 2012 and Dec 31, 2018 to describe labour and birth in home and birth center settings where common obstetric interventions [i.e., oxytocin, planned cesarean] are not available. The MANA Stats cohort includes pregnant people who intended birth in these settings and prospectively collects labour and birth processes and outcomes regardless of where birth or postpartum care ultimately occurs. Survival curves were calculated to estimate labour duration percentiles (e.g. 10th, 50th, 90th, and others of interest), by parity and sub-stratified by age and BMI. Findings: Compared to multiparous women (n = 32,882), nulliparous women (n = 15,331) had significantly longer active labour [e.g., median 7.5 vs. 3.3 h; 95th percentile 34.8 vs. 12.0 h] and significantly longer pushing phase [e.g., median 1.1 vs. 0.2 h; 95th percentile 5.5 vs. 1.1 h]. Among nulliparous women, maternal age >35 was associated with longer active first stage of labour and longer pushing phase, and BMI >30 kg/m² was associated with a longer active first stage of labour but a shorter pushing phase. Patterns among multiparous women were different, with those >35 years of age experiencing a slightly more rapid active labour and no difference in pushing duration, and those with BMI >30 kg/m² experiencing a slightly longer active labour but, similarly, no difference in pushing duration. Interpretation: Nulliparous women had significantly longer active first stage and pushing phase durations than multiparous women, with further variation noted by age and by BMI. Contemporary US women with low-risk pregnancies who intended birth in settings absent common obstetric interventions and in spontaneous labour with a live, vertex, term, singleton, non-anomalous fetus experienced labour durations that were often longer than prior characterizations, particularly among nulliparous women. Results overcome prior and current sampling limitations to refine understanding of normal labour durations and time thresholds signaling 'labour dystocia'. Funding: OHSU Nursing Innovation and OHSU University Shared Resources.

Prevalence and Predictors of Postpartum Cosleeping Practices after Midwife-Led Births in the US.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate patterns of mother-infant sleeping behaviors among US-based mothers who received care from midwives and breastfed their infants the majority of time at 6 weeks postpartum. STUDY DESIGN: Infant sleep locations were reported for 24 915 mother-infant dyads followed through 6 weeks postpartum, following midwife-led singleton births. Using data derived from medical records, we used multinomial logistic regression to identify predictors of sleep location. RESULTS: The median maternal age was 31 years (IQR, 27-34 years). The majority were White (84.5%), reported having a partner or spouse (95%), had a community birth (87%), and reported bedsharing with their infant for part (13.2%) or most of the night (43.8%). In the adjusted analysis, positive predictors of always bedsharing included increasing maternal age (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.13-1.21; per 5 years), cesarean birth (OR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.18-1.86), Medicaid eligibility (OR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.62-1.91), and maternal race/ethnicity (Black OR, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.09-1.79]; Latinx OR, 1.53 [95% CI, 1.35-1.74]; multiracial OR, 1.69 [95% CI, 1.39-2.07]). Negative predictors of bedsharing included having a partner/spouse (OR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.56-0.77) and birth location in hospitals (OR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.49-0.64) or birthing centers (OR, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.44-0.51). Partial breastfeeding dyads were less likely to bedshare than those who were exclusively breastfeeding (always bedsharing OR, 0.48 [95% CI, 0.41-0.56]; sometimes bedsharing OR 0.69 [95% CI, 0.56-0.83]). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that cosleeping is common among US families who choose community births, most of whom exclusively breastfeed through at least 6 weeks.

Preterm and low birthweight birth in the United States: Black midwives speak of causality, prevention, and healing.

BACKGROUND: Low birthweight (LBW) and preterm birth (PTB) are more common among Black infants than white infants in the United States. Although multiple hypotheses have been proposed to explain elevated rates of PTB and LBW, the perspectives of Black midwives who serve Black communities are largely missing from the literature. METHODS: Using semi-structured interviews and focus groups with a purposive sample of midwives (n = 29), we elicited midwives' perceptions of PTB and LBW causation, as well as insights on culturally congruent strategies for prevention. We used consensus coding and reciprocal ethnography to increase the rigor of our analyses. RESULTS: Midwives identified three intersecting and predisposing root causes: (1) systemic racism; (2) the epigenetic legacy of enslavement; and (3) ongoing cultural loss. In response to these stressors, midwives recommended variants of two additional themes-(4) community building; and (5) culturally centered care-as essential to reversing mortality trends among Black babies. DISCUSSION: Midwives' perspectives, which are supported by relevant literature, provide critical insights that should inform both research and policy aimed at promoting birth justice in the United States and beyond.

Barriers to consistent and reliable investigation of sudden unexpected infant death: Perspectives from law enforcement.

Despite persistent efforts to advance infant death investigation, most sudden unexpected infant deaths (SUIDs) remain unexplained. Law enforcement officials contribute to SUID investigations throughout the United States, but their impacts on these investigations have not been adequately examined. In this exploratory study, 26 law enforcement officials were interviewed about their experiences and perspectives with SUID investigations. Thematic analysis of qualitative data revealed three specific difficulties law enforcement encounter during SUID investigations: (1) inadequate preparation; (2) overwhelming emotions; and (3) a victim-suspect dilemma. Findings indicate that these barriers may inhibit consistent and reliable investigation of infant death and, therefore, may impede the cause and manner of death determinations. Participants' narratives also offered insights into potential solutions, including expanded SUID training for law enforcement and use of checklists, such as the Sudden Unexpected Infant Death Investigation Reporting Form. The impacts of overwhelming emotions confronted during SUID investigation warrant further study. The victim-suspect dilemma stems from the inability of law enforcement to conclusively eliminate the possibility of homicide. This dilemma may be resolved through a clear distinction between interactions with potential evidence and interactions with the family. Law enforcement must be trained to treat all SUID families in a compassionate and non-accusatory manner, while investigating all SUID with careful attention to detail that is essential in any potential homicide investigation. A consistent, meticulous, and compassionate approach to SUID investigations will improve the reliability of information obtained and offer the best opportunity for providing answers to grieving parents.

Maternal hair cortisol concentrations across pregnancy and the early postpartum period in a Puerto Rican sample.

OBJECTIVE: Hair cortisol is a noninvasive, long-term biomarker of human stress. Strengths and weaknesses of this biomarker as a proxy measure of perinatal stress are not yet well understood. Hair cortisol data were collected from pregnant women in Puerto Rico to investigate maternal cortisol level variance across pregnancy. METHODS: In 2017, we recruited 86 pregnant women planning to birth at a large urban hospital. We aimed to collect four hair samples from each participant, one in each trimester and one in the postpartum period. RESULTS: Median cortisol in the first trimester (n = 82) was 5.7 picograms/milligram (pg/mg) (range: 1.0-62.4). In the second, third, and postpartum periods, the medians were 6.8 pg/mg (1.0-69.5), (n = 46), 20.1 pg/mg (5.6-89.0), (n = 30), and 14.1 pg/mg (1.7-39.8), (n = 9), respectively. These medians disguise a 10-fold and 50-fold variability for two participants. Our sample sizes declined sharply when Hurricane Maria caused major disruptions in services and participants' lives. CONCLUSION: Maternal hair cortisol concentrations were lower in the first and second trimester than the third trimester and early postpartum period. We also observed a wide range of variation in cortisol levels throughout pregnancy and in the postpartum period.

Obstetric iatrogenesis in the United States: the spectrum of unintentional harm, disrespect, violence, and abuse.

'Medical iatrogenesis' was first defined by Illich as injuries 'done to patients by ineffective, unsafe, and erroneous treatments'. Following Lokumage's original usage of the term, this paper explores 'obstetric iatrogenesis' along a spectrum ranging from unintentional harm (UH) to overt disrespect, violence, and abuse (DVA), employing the acronym 'UHDVA' for this spectrum. This paper draws attention to the systemic maltreatment rooted in the technocratic model of birth, which includes UH normalized forms of mistreatment that childbearers and providers may not recognize as abusive. Equally, this paper assesses how obstetric iatrogenesis disproportionately impacts Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC), contributing to worse perinatal outcomes for BIPOC childbearers. Much of the work on 'obstetric violence' that documents the most detrimental end of the UHDVA spectrum has focused on low-to-middle income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Based on a dataset of 62 interviews and on our personal observations, this paper shows that significant UHDVA also occurs in the high-income U.S., provide concrete examples, and suggest humanistic solutions.

"Women hope the situation will change, and their husbands will change with it": narratives of intimate partner violence in Gaza.

The authors' purpose in conducting this study was to identify barriers faced by survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) in accessing services in Gaza. We collected data via in-depth interviews with women (ages 18-49; n = 25). Respondents were recruited through convenience sampling from women's organizations. Interviews were transcribed, translated, and coded using an inductive approach. Results indicate three main factors that influence help-seeking: perceived transgression of traditional gender roles; distrust of women's centers; and contextual acceptance of IPV. An understanding of emic perceptions of IPV can inform the design and delivery of support services and increase access to interventions for women in Gaza.

Current Resources for Evidence-Based Practice, January 2021.

An extensive review of new resources to support the provision of evidence-based care for women and infants. The current column includes a discussion of the WHO's new Labour Care Guide and commentaries on reviews focused on prevention of mastitis in women during the postpartum period and a comparison of outcomes for fresh versus frozen embryos for in vitro fertilization.

"I had to fight for my VBAC": A mixed methods exploration of women's experiences of pregnancy and vaginal birth after cesarean in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Vaginal birth after cesarean (VBAC) is safe, cost-effective, and beneficial. Despite professional recommendations supporting VBAC and high success rates, VBAC rates in the United States (US) have remained below 15% since 2002. Very little has been written about access to VBAC in the United States from the perspectives of birthing people. We describe findings from a mixed methods study examining experiences seeking a VBAC in the United States. METHODS: Individuals with a history of cesarean and recent subsequent birth were recruited through social media groups. Using an online questionnaire, we collected sociodemographic and birth history information, qualitative accounts of participants' experiences, and scores on the Mothers on Respect Index, the Mothers Autonomy in Decision Making Scale, and the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. RESULTS: Participants (N = 1711) representing all 50 states completed the questionnaire; 1151 provided qualitative data. Participants who planned a VBAC reported significantly greater decision-making autonomy and respectful treatment in their maternity care compared with those who did not. The qualitative theme: "I had to fight for my VBAC" describes participants' accounts of navigating obstacles to VBAC, including finding a supportive provider and traveling long distances to locate a clinician and/or hospital willing to provide care. Participants cited support from providers, doulas, and peers as critical to their ability to acquire the requisite knowledge and power to effectively self-advocate. DISCUSSION: Findings highlight the difficulties individuals face accessing VBAC within the context of a complex health system and help to explain why rates of attempted VBAC remain low.

Fetal macrosomia in home and birth center births in the United States: Maternal, fetal, and newborn outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Fetal macrosomia is associated with negative outcomes, although less is known about how severities of macrosomia influence these outcomes. Planned community births in the United States have higher rates of gestational age-adjusted macrosomia than planned hospital births, providing a novel population to examine macrosomia morbidity. METHODS: Maternal and neonatal outcomes associated with grade 1 (4000-4499 g), grade 2 (4500-4999 g), and grade 3 (≥5000 g) macrosomia were compared to normal birthweight newborns (2500-3999 g), using data from the MANA Statistics Project-a registry of planned community births, 2012-2018 (n = 68 966). Outcomes included perineal trauma, postpartum hemorrhage, cesarean birth, neonatal birth injury, shoulder dystocia, neonatal respiratory distress, neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) stay >24 hours, and perinatal death. Logistic regressions controlled for parity and mode of birth, obesity, gestational diabetes, and preeclampsia. RESULTS: Sixteen percent of the sample were grade 1 macrosomic, 3.3% were grade 2 macrosomic, and 0.4% were grade 3 macrosomic. Macrosomia grades 1-3 were associated in a dose-response fashion with higher odds of all outcomes, compared to non-macrosomia. The adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for postpartum hemorrhage for grade 1, grade 2, and grade 3 macrosomia vs normal birthweight were 1.75 (1.56-1.96), 2.12 (1.70-2.63), and 5.18 (3.47-7.74), respectively. Other outcomes had similar patterns. DISCUSSION: The adjusted odds of negative outcomes increase as grade of macrosomia increases in planned community births; results are comparable with the published literature. Pre-birth fetal weight estimation is imprecise; prenatal supports and shared decision-making processes should reflect these complexities.

Factors affecting third-stage management and postpartum hemorrhage in planned midwife-led home and birth center births in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a potential childbirth complication. Little is known about how third-stage labor is managed by midwives in the United States, including use of uterotonic medication during community birth. Access to uterotonic medication may vary based on credentials of the midwife or state regulations governing midwifery. METHODS: Using data from the Midwives of North America 2.0 database (2004-2009), we describe the PPH incidence for women giving birth in the community, their demographic and clinical characteristics, and methods used by midwives to address PPH. We also examined PPH rates by midwifery credentials and by the presence of regulations for legal midwifery practice. RESULTS: Of the 17 836 vaginal births, 15.9% had blood loss of over 500 mL and 3.3% had 1000 mL or greater blood loss. Midwives used pharmaceuticals to prevent or treat postpartum bleeding in 6.3% and 13.9% of births, respectively, and the rate of hospital transfer after birth was 1.4% (n = 247). In adjusted analyses, PPH was less likely when births occurred at home vs a birth center, if the midwife had a CNM/CM credential vs a CPM/LM/LDM credential, or if the woman was multiparous without a history of PPH or prior cesarean birth. PPH was more likely in states with barriers to midwifery practice compared with regulated states (OR: 1.26; 95% CI, 1.16-1.38). CONCLUSIONS: Women giving birth in the community experienced low overall incidence of PPH-related hospital transfer. However, the occurrence of PPH itself would likely be reduced with improved legal access to uterotonic medication.

Current Resources for Evidence-Based Practice, July 2020.

An extensive review of new resources to support the provision of evidence-based care for women and infants. The current column includes a discussion of whether it is ethical not to offer doula care to all women, and commentaries on reviews focused on folic acid and autism spectrum disorder, and timing of influenza vaccination during pregnancy.

Late Upper Paleolithic occupation at Cooper's Ferry, Idaho, USA, ~16,000 years ago.

Radiocarbon dating of the earliest occupational phases at the Cooper's Ferry site in western Idaho indicates that people repeatedly occupied the Columbia River basin, starting between 16,560 and 15,280 calibrated years before the present (cal yr B.P.). Artifacts from these early occupations indicate the use of unfluted stemmed projectile point technologies before the appearance of the Clovis Paleoindian tradition and support early cultural connections with northeastern Asian Upper Paleolithic archaeological traditions. The Cooper's Ferry site was initially occupied during a time that predates the opening of an ice-free corridor (≤14,800 cal yr B.P.), which supports the hypothesis that initial human migration into the Americas occurred via a Pacific coastal route.