Chronic alcohol use primes bronchial cells for altered inflammatory response and barrier dysfunction during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a significant public health concern and people with AUD are more likely to develop severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in response to respiratory infections. To examine whether AUD was a risk factor for more severe outcome in response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, we examined early responses to infection using cultured differentiated bronchial epithelial cells derived from brushings obtained from people with AUD or without AUD. RNA-seq analysis of uninfected cells determined that AUD cells were enriched for expression of epidermal genes as compared with non-AUD cells. Bronchial epithelial cells from patients with AUD showed a significant decrease in barrier function 72 h postinfection, as determined by transepithelial electrical resistance. In contrast, barrier function of non-AUD cells was enhanced 72 h after SARS-CoV-2 infection. AUD cells showed claudin-7 that did not colocalize with zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), indicative of disorganized tight junctions. However, both AUD and non-AUD cells showed decreased ß-catenin expression following SARS-CoV-2 infection. To determine the impact of AUD on the inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, cytokine secretion was measured by multiplex analysis. SARS-CoV-2-infected AUD bronchial cells had enhanced secretion of multiple proinflammatory cytokines including TNFα, IL-1ß, and IFNγ as opposed to non-AUD cells. In contrast, secretion of the barrier-protective cytokines epidermal growth factor (EGF) and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) was enhanced for non-AUD bronchial cells. Taken together, these data support the hypothesis that AUD is a risk factor for COVID-19, where alcohol primes airway epithelial cells for increased inflammation and increased barrier dysfunction and increased inflammation in response to infection by SARS-CoV-2.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a significant risk factor for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. We found that AUD causes a phenotypic shift in gene expression in human bronchial epithelial cells, enhancing expression of epidermal genes. AUD cells infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) had higher levels of proinflammatory cytokine secretion and barrier dysfunction not present in infected non-AUD cells, consistent with increased early COVID-19 severity due to AUD.

Spermatozoan Metabolism as a Non-Traditional Model for the Study of Huntington's Disease.

Huntington's Disease (HD) is a fatal autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease manifested through motor dysfunction and cognitive deficits. Decreased fertility is also observed in HD animal models and HD male patients, due to altered spermatogenesis and sperm function, thus resulting in reduced fertilization potential. Although some pharmaceuticals are currently utilized to mitigate HD symptoms, an effective treatment that remedies the pathogenesis of the disease is yet to be approved by the FDA. Identification of genes and relevant diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic target pathways including glycolysis and mitochondrial complex-I-dependent respiration may be advantageous for early diagnosis, management, and treatment of the disease. This review addresses the HD pathway in neuronal and sperm metabolism, including relevant gene and protein expression in both neurons and spermatozoa, indicated in the pathogenesis of HD. Furthermore, zinc-containing and zinc-interacting proteins regulate and/or are regulated by zinc ion homeostasis in both neurons and spermatozoa. Therefore, this review also aims to explore the comparative role of zinc in both neuronal and sperm function. Ongoing studies aim to characterize the products of genes implicated in HD pathogenesis that are expressed in both neurons and spermatozoa to facilitate studies of future treatment avenues in HD and HD-related male infertility. The emerging link between zinc homeostasis and the HD pathway could lead to new treatments and diagnostic methods linking genetic sperm defects with somatic comorbidities.

Cerebral Aß deposition in an Aß-precursor protein-transgenic rhesus monkey.

With the ultimate goal of developing a more representative animal model of Alzheimer's disease (AD), two female amyloid-ß-(Aß) precursor protein-transgenic (APPtg) rhesus monkeys were generated by lentiviral transduction of the APP gene into rhesus oocytes, followed by in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. The APP-transgene included the AD-associated Swedish K670N/M671L and Indiana V717F mutations (APPSWE/IND) regulated by the human polyubiquitin-C promoter. Overexpression of APP was confirmed in lymphocytes and brain tissue. Upon sacrifice at 10 years of age, one of the monkeys had developed Aß plaques and cerebral Aß-amyloid angiopathy in the occipital, parietal, and caudal temporal neocortices. The induction of Aß deposition more than a decade prior to its usual emergence in the rhesus monkey supports the feasibility of creating a transgenic nonhuman primate model for mechanistic analyses and preclinical testing of treatments for Alzheimer's disease and cerebrovascular amyloidosis.

Blastocyst development after fertilization with in vitro spermatids derived from nonhuman primate embryonic stem cells.

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that functional spermatids can be derived in vitro from nonhuman primate pluripotent stem cells. DESIGN: Green fluorescent protein-labeled, rhesus macaque nonhuman primate embryonic stem cells (nhpESCs) were differentiated into advanced male germ cell lineages using a modified serum-free spermatogonial stem cell culture medium. In vitro-derived round spermatid-like cells (rSLCs) from differentiated nhpESCs were assessed for their ability to fertilize rhesus oocytes by intracytoplasmic sperm(atid) injection. SETTING: Multiple academic laboratory settings. PATIENTS: Not applicable. INTERVENTIONS: Intracytoplasmic sperm(atid) injection of in vitro-derived spermatids from nhpESCs into rhesus macaque oocytes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Differentiation into spermatogenic cell lineages was measured through multiple assessments including ribonucleic acid sequencing and immunocytochemistry for various spermatogenic markers. In vitro spermatids were assessed for their ability to fertilize oocytes by intracytoplasmic sperm(atid) injection by assessing early fertilization events such as spermatid deoxyribonucleic acid decondensation and pronucleus formation/apposition. Preimplantation embryo development from the one-cell zygote stage to the blastocyst stage was also assessed. RESULTS: Nonhuman primate embryonic stem cells can be differentiated into advanced germ cell lineages, including haploid rSLCs. These rSLCs undergo deoxyribonucleic acid decondensation and pronucleus formation/apposition when microinjected into rhesus macaque mature oocytes, which, after artificial activation and coinjection of ten-eleven translocation 3 protein, undergo embryonic divisions with approximately 12% developing successfully into expanded blastocysts. CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates that rSLCs, generated in vitro from primate pluripotent stem cells, mimic many of the capabilities of in vivo round spermatids and perform events essential for preimplantation development. To our knowledge, this work represents, for the first time, that functional spermatid-like cells can be derived in vitro from primate pluripotent stem cells.

CAG repeat instability in embryonic stem cells and derivative spermatogenic cells of transgenic Huntington's disease monkey.

PURPOSE: The expansion of CAG (glutamine; Q) trinucleotide repeats (TNRs) predominantly occurs through male lineage in Huntington's disease (HD). As a result, offspring will have larger CAG repeats compared to their fathers, which causes an earlier onset of the disease called genetic anticipation. This study aims to develop a novel in vitro model to replicate CAG repeat instability in early spermatogenesis and demonstrate the biological process of genetic anticipation by using the HD stem cell model for the first time. METHODS: HD rhesus monkey embryonic stem cells (rESCs) were cultured in vitro for an extended period. Male rESCs were used to derive spermatogenic cells in vitro with a 10-day differentiation. The assessment of CAG repeat instability was performed by GeneScan and curve fit analysis. RESULTS: Spermatogenic cells derived from rESCs exhibit progressive expansion of CAG repeats with high daily expansion rates compared to the extended culture of rESCs. The expansion of CAG repeats is cell type-specific and size-dependent. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we report a novel stem cell model that replicates genome instability and CAG repeat expansion in in vitro derived HD monkey spermatogenic cells. The in vitro spermatogenic cell model opens a new opportunity for studying TNR instability and the underlying mechanism of genetic anticipation, not only in HD but also in other TNR diseases.

Progressive Polyglutamine Repeat Expansion in Peripheral Blood Cells and Sperm of Transgenic Huntington's Disease Monkeys.

The expanded CAG repeat results in somatic mosaicism and genetic anticipation in Huntington's disease (HD). Here we report a longitudinal study examining CAG repeat instability in lymphocytes and sperm of three HD monkeys throughout their whole life-span that encompass the prodromal to symptomatic stages of HD. We demonstrate a progressive increase in CAG repeat length in lymphocytes and sperm as the animals aged. We also examined the impact of CAG repeat length on expansion rate, which showed a clear linear correlation up to 62Q, and high instability after. Our findings stress the importance of further investigation in CAG instability in peripheral blood cells longitudinally.

Combination of stem cell and gene therapy ameliorates symptoms in Huntington's disease mice.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited monogenetic disorder characterized by motor and cognitive dysfunction due to neurodegeneration. The disease is caused by the polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion at the 5' terminal of the exon 1 of the huntingtin (HTT) gene, IT15, which results in the accumulation of mutant HTT (mHTT) aggregates in neurons and cell death. The monogenetic cause and the loss of specific neural cell population make HD a suitable candidate for stem cell and gene therapy. In this study, we demonstrate the efficacy of the combination of stem cell and gene therapy in a transgenic HD mouse model (N171-82Q; HD mice) using rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) neural progenitor cells (NPCs). We have established monkey NPC cell lines from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that can differentiate into GABAergic neurons in vitro as well as in mouse brains without tumor formation. Wild-type monkey NPCs (WT-NPCs), NPCs derived from a transgenic HD monkey (HD-NPCs), and genetically modified HD-NPCs with reduced mHTT levels by stable expression of small-hairpin RNA (HD-shHD-NPCs), were grafted into the striatum of WT and HD mice. Mice that received HD-shHD-NPC grafts showed a significant increase in lifespan compared to the sham injection group and HD mice. Both WT-NPC and HD-shHD-NPC grafts in HD mice showed significant improvement in motor functions assessed by rotarod and grip strength. Also, immunohistochemistry demonstrated the integration and differentiation. Our results suggest the combination of stem cell and gene therapy as a viable therapeutic option for HD treatment.

Amelioration of Huntington's disease phenotype in astrocytes derived from iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells of Huntington's disease monkeys.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating monogenic, dominant, hereditary, neurodegenerative disease. HD is caused by the expansion of CAG repeats in exon 1 of the huntingtin (HTT) gene, IT15, resulting in an expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) residue in the N-terminus of the HTT protein. HD is characterized by the accumulation of mutant HTT (mHTT) in neural and somatic cells. Progressive brain atrophy occurs initially in the striatum and extends to different brain regions with progressive decline in cognitive, behavioral and motor functions. Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type in the brain and play an essential role in neural development and maintaining homeostasis in the central nervous system (CNS). There is increasing evidence supporting the involvement of astrocytes in the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We have generated neural progenitor cells (NPCs) from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) of transgenic HD monkeys as a model for studying HD pathogenesis. We have reported that NPCs can be differentiated in vitro into mature neural cells, such as neurons and glial cells, and are an excellent tool to study the pathogenesis of HD. To better understand the role of astrocytes in HD pathogenesis and discover new therapies to treat HD, we have developed an astrocyte differentiation protocol and evaluated the efficacy of RNAi to ameliorate HD phenotypes in astrocytes. The resultant astrocytes expressed canonical astrocyte-specific markers examined by immunostaining and real-time PCR. Flow cytometry (FACS) analysis showed that the majority of the differentiated NPCs (95.7%) were positive for an astrocyte specific marker, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Functionalities of astrocytes were evaluated by glutamate uptake assay and electrophysiology. Expression of mHTT in differentiated astrocytes induced cytosolic mHTT aggregates and nuclear inclusions, suppressed the expression of SOD2 and PGC1, reduced ability to uptake glutamate, decreased 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) response, and shifted I/V plot measured by electrophysiology, which are consistent with previous reports on HD astrocytes and patient brain samples. However, expression of small-hairpin RNA against HTT (shHD) ameliorated and reversed aforementioned HD phenotypes in astrocytes. This represents a demonstration of a novel non-human primate (NHP) astrocyte model for studying HD pathogenesis and a platform for discovering novel HD treatments.

Pathogenic cellular phenotypes are germline transmissible in a transgenic primate model of Huntington's disease.

A transgenic primate model for Huntington's Disease (HD) first reported by our group that (HD monkeys) carry the mutant Huntingtin (HTT) gene with expanded polyglutamine (CAG) repeats and, develop chorea, dystonia, and other involuntary motor deficiencies similar to HD [ 1 ]. More recently, we have found that longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging of the HD monkey brain revealed significant atrophy in regions associated with cognitive deficits symptomatic in HD patients, providing the first animal model which replicates clinical phenotypes of diagnosed humans. Here we report germline transmission of the pathogenic mutant HTT in HD monkey by the production of embryos and subsequent derivation of HD monkey embryonic stem cells (rHD-ESCs) using HD monkey sperm. rHD-ESCs inherit mutant HTT and green fluorescent protein (GFP) genes through the gametes of HD monkey. rHD-ESCs express mutant HTT and form intranuclear inclusion, a classical cellular feature of HD. Notably, mosaicism of the pathogenic polyQ region in the sperm as well as derived ESCs were also observed, consistent with intraindividual and intergenerational reports of mosaic CAG repeats [ 2 , 3 ]and CAG expansion in HD patients [ 4-7 ]. The confirmation of transgene inheritability and development of pathogenic HD phenotype in derived rHD-ESCs reported in this study is a milestone in the pursuit of a transgenic primate model with inherited mutant HTT for development of novel disease biomarkers and therapeutics.