Bacterial Lectin FimH and Its Aggregation Hot-Spots: An Alternative Strategy against Uropathogenic Escherichia coli.

Type I fimbriae are the main adhesive organelles of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), consisting of four different subunits. Their component with the most important role in establishing bacterial infections is the FimH adhesin located at the fimbrial tip. This two-domain protein mediates adhesion to host epithelial cells through interaction with terminal mannoses on epithelial glycoproteins. Here, we propose that the amyloidogenic potential of FimH can be exploited for the development of therapeutic agents against Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs). Aggregation-prone regions (APRs) were identified via computational methods, and peptide-analogues corresponding to FimH lectin domain APRs were chemically synthesized and studied with the aid of both biophysical experimental techniques and molecular dynamic simulations. Our findings indicate that these peptide-analogues offer a promising set of antimicrobial candidate molecules since they can either interfere with the folding process of FimH or compete for the mannose-binding pocket.

Formation and physicochemical properties of glycogen phosphorylase in complex with a cationic polyelectrolyte.

The accumulation of rabbit muscle glycogen phosphorylase b (RMGPb) in electrostatic complexes with the cationic polyelectrolyte poly 2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate in its quenched form (QPDMAEMA) was studied in two buffer solutions. In the N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (BES) buffer, large complexes of RMGPb-QPDMAEMA were formed which adopted smaller sizes as QPDMAEMA concentration increased. However, in N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N'-(2-ethanesulfonic acid) (HEPES) buffer, the hydrodynamic radius of the formed complexes gradually increased as the polymer concentration increased. Zeta potential measurements (ζp) showed that RMGPb significantly changed the ζp of the QPDMAEMA aggregates. Fluorescence studies showed that the interaction between RMGPb and QPDMAEAMA was enhanced as polymer concentration increased. Specifically, 8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (ANS) fluorescence indicated that in the BES buffer the aggregates became denser as more QPDMAEMA was added, while in the HEPES buffer the density of the formed structures decreased. RMGPb's secondary structure was examined by Attenuated Total Reflection - Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) and Circular Dichroism (CD) showing that QPDMAEMA interaction with RMGPb does not induce any changes to the secondary structure of the enzyme. These observations suggest that cationic polyelectrolytes may be utilized for the formulation of RMGPb in multifunctional nanostructures and be further exploited in innovative biotechnology applications and bioinspired materials development.

A glucose-based molecular rotor inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase as a probe of cellular enzymatic function.

Molecular rotors belong to a family of fluorescent compounds characterized as molecular switches, where a fluorescence on/off signal signifies a change in the molecule's microenvironment. Herein, the successful synthesis and detailed study of (E)-2-cyano-3-(p-(dimethylamino)phenyl)-N-(ß-D-glucopyranosyl)acrylamide (RotA), is reported. RotA was found to be a strong inhibitor of rabbit muscle glycogen phosphorylase (RMGPb), that binds at the catalytic site of the enzyme. RotA's interactions with the residues lining the catalytic site of RMGPb were determined by X-ray crystallography. Spectroscopic studies coupled with theoretical calculations proved that RotA is a molecular rotor. When bound in the catalytic channel of RMGPb, it behaved as a light switch, generating a strong fluorescence signal, allowing utilization of RotA as a probe that locates glycogen phosphorylase (GP). RotA, mono-, di- and per-acetylated derivatives, as well as nanoparticles with RotA encapsulated in polyethylene glycol-poly-L-histidine, were used in live cell fluorescence microscopy imaging to test the delivery of RotA through the plasma membrane of HepG2 and A431 cells, with the nanoparticles providing the best results. Once in the intracellular milieu, RotA exhibits remarkable colocalization with GP and significant biological effects, both in cell growth and inhibition of GP.

Molecular investigation of artificial and natural sweeteners as potential anti-inflammatory agents.

Repurposing existing drugs, as well as natural and artificial sweeteners for novel therapeutic indications could speed up the drug discovery process since numerous associated risks and costs for drug development can be surpassed. In this study, natural and artificial sweeteners have been evaluated by in silico and experimental studies for their potency to inhibit lipoxygenase enzyme, an enzyme participating in the inflammation pathway. A variety of different methods pinpointed that aspartame inhibits the lipoxygenase isoform 1 (LOX-1). In particular, "LOX-aspartame" complex, that was predicted by docking studies, was further evaluated by Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations in order to assess the stability of the complex. The binding energy of the complex has been calculated after MD simulations using Molecular Mechanics/Generalized Born Surface Area (MM/GBSA) method. Furthermore, Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM) calculations have been applied for geometry optimization of the "enzyme-ligand" complex. After having fully characterized the "LOX-aspartame" complex in silico, followed in vitro biological assays confirmed that aspartame inhibits LOX-1 (IC50=50 ± 3.0 µΜ) and blocks its biological response. The atomic details of aspartame's interaction profile with LOX-1 were revealed through Saturation Transfer Difference (STD) NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance). Finally, aspartame was also tested with Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics studies for its potent binding to a number of different LOX isoforms of many organisms, including human. The in silico methods indicated that aspartame could serve as a novel starting point for drug design against LOX enzyme. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Synthesis, Kinetic and Conformational Studies of 2-Substituted-5-(ß-d-glucopyranosyl)-pyrimidin-4-ones as Potential Inhibitors of Glycogen Phosphorylase.

Dysregulation of glycogen phosphorylase, an enzyme involved in glucose homeostasis, may lead to a number of pathological states such as type 2 diabetes and cancer, making it an important molecular target for the development of new forms of pharmaceutical intervention. Based on our previous work on the design and synthesis of 4-arylamino-1-(ß-d-glucopyranosyl)pyrimidin-2-ones, which inhibit the activity of glycogen phosphorylase by binding at its catalytic site, we report herein a general synthesis of 2-substituted-5-(ß-d-glucopyranosyl)pyrimidin-4-ones, a related class of metabolically stable, C-glucosyl-based, analogues. The synthetic development consists of a metallated heterocycle, produced from 5-bromo-2-methylthiouracil, in addition to protected d-gluconolactone, followed by organosilane reduction. The methylthio handle allowed derivatization through hydrolysis, ammonolysis and arylamine substitution, and the new compounds were found to be potent (µM) inhibitors of rabbit muscle glycogen phosphorylase. The results were interpreted with the help of density functional theory calculations and conformational analysis and were compared with previous findings.

XynDZ5: A New Thermostable GH10 Xylanase.

Xylanolytic enzymes have a broad range of applications in industrial biotechnology as biocatalytic components of various processes and products, such as food additives, bakery products, coffee extraction, agricultural silage and functional foods. An increasing market demand has driven the growing interest for the discovery of xylanases with specific industrially relevant characteristics, such as stability at elevated temperatures and in the presence of other denaturing factors, which will facilitate their incorporation into industrial processes. In this work, we report the discovery and biochemical characterization of a new thermostable GH10 xylanase, termed XynDZ5, exhibiting only 26% amino acid sequence identity to the closest characterized xylanolytic enzyme. This new enzyme was discovered in an Icelandic hot spring enrichment culture of a Thermoanaerobacterium species using a recently developed bioinformatic analysis platform. XynDZ5 was produced recombinantly in Escherichia coli, purified and characterized biochemically. This analysis revealed that it acts as an endo-1,4-ß-xylanase that performs optimally at 65-75°C and pH 7.5. The enzyme is capable of retaining high levels of catalytic efficiency after several hours of incubation at high temperatures, as well as in the presence of significant concentrations of a range of metal ions and denaturing agents. Interestingly, the XynDZ5 biochemical profile was found to be atypical, as it also exhibits significant exo-activity. Computational modeling of its three-dimensional structure predicted a (ß/α)8 TIM barrel fold, which is very frequently encountered among family GH10 enzymes. This modeled structure has provided clues about structural features that may explain aspects of its catalytic performance. Our results suggest that XynDZ5 represents a promising new candidate biocatalyst appropriate for several high-temperature biotechnological applications in the pulp, paper, baking, animal-feed and biofuel industries.

The crystal structure of a Fusarium oxysporum feruloyl esterase that belongs to the tannase family.

Feruloyl esterases are enzymes of industrial interest that catalyse the hydrolysis of the ester bond between hydroxycinnamic acids such as ferulic acid and sugars present in the plant cell wall. Although there are several structures of biochemically characterized feruloyl esterases available, the structural determinants of their substrate specificity are not yet fully understood. Here, we present the crystal structure of a feruloyl esterase from Fusarium oxysporum (FoFaeC) at 2.3 Å resolution. Similar to the two other tannase-like feruloyl esterases, FoFaeC features a large lid domain covering the active site with potential regulatory role and a disulphide bond that brings together the serine and histidine of the catalytic triad. Differences are mainly observed in the metal coordination site and the substrate binding pocket. ENZYMES: E.C.3.1.1.73. DATABASES: The sequence of FoFaeC has been deposited with UniProt with accession code A0A1D3S5H0_FUSOX and the atomic coordinates of the three-dimensional structure with Protein Data Bank, with PDB code: 6FAT.

Stimuli-Responsive Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Nanosystems with Incorporated Poly(2-Dimethylamino Ethyl Methacrylate)-b-Poly(Lauryl Methacrylate) Amphiphilic Block Copolymer.

There is an emerging need to evolve the conventional lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles to advanced stimuli-responsive, therapeutic nanosystems with upgraded functionality. Towards this effort, typically used stabilizers, such as Pluronics®, can be combined or replaced by smart, stimuli-responsive block copolymers. The aim of this study is to incorporate the stimuli-responsive amphiphilic block copolymer poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA-b-PLMA) as a stabilizer in lipidic liquid crystalline nanoparticles, in order to provide steric stabilization and simultaneous stimuli-responsiveness. The physicochemical and morphological characteristics of the prepared nanosystems were investigated by light scattering techniques, cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and fluorescence spectroscopy. The PDMAEMA-b-PLMA, either individually or combined with Poloxamer 407, exhibited different modes of stabilization depending on the lipid used. Due to the protonation ability of PDMAEMA blocks in acidic pH, the nanoparticles exhibited high positive charge, as well as pH-responsive charge conversion, which can be exploited towards pharmaceutical applications. The ionic strength, temperature and serum proteins influenced the physicochemical behavior of the nanoparticles, while the polymer concentration differentiated their morphology; their micropolarity and microfluidity were also evaluated. The proposed liquid crystalline nanosystems can be considered as novel and attractive pH-responsive drug and gene delivery nanocarriers due to their polycationic content.

Anomeric Spironucleosides of ß-d-Glucopyranosyl Uracil as Potential Inhibitors of Glycogen Phosphorylase.

In the case of type 2 diabetes, inhibitors of glycogen phosphorylase (GP) may prevent unwanted glycogenolysis under high glucose conditions and thus aim at the reduction of excessive glucose production by the liver. Anomeric spironucleosides, such as hydantocidin, present a rich synthetic chemistry and important biological function (e.g., inhibition of GP). For this study, the Suárez radical methodology was successfully applied to synthesize the first example of a 1,6-dioxa-4-azaspiro[4.5]decane system, not previously constructed via a radical pathway, starting from 6-hydroxymethyl-ß-d-glucopyranosyluracil. It was shown that, in the rigid pyranosyl conformation, the required [1,5]-radical translocation was a minor process. The stereochemistry of the spirocycles obtained was unequivocally determined based on the chemical shifts of key sugar protons in the 1H-NMR spectra. The two spirocycles were found to be modest inhibitors of RMGPb.

Multiscale time-resolved fluorescence study of a glycogen phosphorylase inhibitor combined with quantum chemistry calculations.

A fluorescence study of N1-(ß-d-glucopyranosyl)-N4-[2-acridin-9(10H)-onyl]-cytosine (GLAC), the first fluorescent potent inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase (GP), in neutral aqueous solution, is presented herein. Quantum chemistry (TD-DFT) calculations show the existence of several conformers both in the ground and first excited states. They result from rotations of the acridone and cytosine moieties around an NH bridge which may lead to the formation of non-emitting charge-transfer states. The fingerprints of various conformers have been detected by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy (fluorescence upconversion and time-correlated single photon counting) and identified using as criteria their energy, polarization and relative population resulting from computations. Such an analysis should contribute to the design of new GP inhibitors with better fluorescence properties, suitable for imaging applications.

Cubic lyotropic liquid crystals as drug delivery carriers: Physicochemical and morphological studies.

The self-assembly process of amphiphilic molecules into solvents results in different mesophases, such as inverse cubic and hexagonal that both belong to the wider category of lyotropic liquid crystals. The above mesophases can be further exploited upon the formation of liquid crystalline nanoparticles, cubosomes and hexosomes respectively, which may be utilized as drug delivery nanosystems, exhibiting major advantages. In the present study, liquid crystalline nanoparticles were prepared and evaluated in terms of morphology and physicochemical behavior. The goal of this study is to examine the effect of the different formulation parameters, as well as the effect of the different microenvironmental factors (temperature, ionic strength, pH, serum proteins presence) on their behavior. The physicochemical behavior and the morphology of the systems were investigated by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), cryogenic-Transmission Electron Microscopy (cryo-TEM), fluorescence spectroscopy and a gamut of light scattering techniques. The formulation process was proved to influence strictly the physicochemical behavior of the prepared nanosystems. They presented colloidal stability over time and upon ionic strength increase, but they were affected by the presence of proteins and presented reversible structure alterations upon temperature increase. Their morphological structure and internal microenvironment, reflected by micropolarity and microfluidity, were also influenced by the formulation parameters.

Rational Drug Design Using Integrative Structural Biology.

Modern drug discovery and design approaches rely heavily on high-throughput methods and state-of-the-art infrastructures with robotic facilities and sophisticated platforms. However, the anticipated research output that would eventually lead to new drugs with minimal or no side effects to the market has not been achieved. Despite the vast amount of information generated, very little is converted to knowledge and even less is capitalized for cross-discipline research actions. Therefore, the need for re-launching rational approaches has become apparent. Here we present an overview of the new trends in rational drug design using integrative structural biology with emphasis on X-ray protein crystallography and small molecules as ligands. With the aim to increase researchers' awareness on the available possibilities to perform front line research, we also underline the benefits and enhanced prospects offered to the scientific community, through access to research infrastructures.

A New Potent Inhibitor of Glycogen Phosphorylase Reveals the Basicity of the Catalytic Site.

The design and synthesis of a glucose-based acridone derivative (GLAC), a potent inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase (GP) are described. GLAC is the first inhibitor of glycogen phosphorylase, the electronic absorption properties of which are clearly distinguishable from those of the enzyme. This allows probing subtle interactions in the catalytic site. The GLAC absorption spectra, associated with X-ray crystallography and quantum chemistry calculations, reveal that part of the catalytic site of GP behaves as a highly basic environment in which GLAC exists as a bis-anion. This is explained by water-bridged hydrogen-bonding interactions with specific catalytic site residues.

Metagenomic mining for thermostable esterolytic enzymes uncovers a new family of bacterial esterases.

Biocatalysts exerting activity against ester bonds have a broad range of applications in modern biotechnology. Here, we have identified a new esterolytic enzyme by screening a metagenomic sample collected from a hot spring in Kamchatka, Russia. Biochemical characterization of the new esterase, termed EstDZ2, revealed that it is highly active against medium chain fatty acid esters at temperatures between 25 and 60 °C and at pH values 7-8. The new enzyme is moderately thermostable with a half-life of more than six hours at 60 °C, but exhibits exquisite stability against high concentrations of organic solvents. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that EstDZ2 is likely an Acetothermia enzyme that belongs to a new family of bacterial esterases, for which we propose the index XV. One distinctive feature of this new family, is the presence of a conserved GHSAG catalytic motif. Multiple sequence alignment, coupled with computational modelling of the three-dimensional structure of EstDZ2, revealed that the enzyme lacks the largest part of the "cap" domain, whose extended structure is characteristic for the closely related Family IV esterases. Thus, EstDZ2 appears to be distinct from known related esterolytic enzymes, both in terms of sequence characteristics, as well as in terms of three-dimensional structure.

EstDZ3: A New Esterolytic Enzyme Exhibiting Remarkable Thermostability.

Lipolytic enzymes that retain high levels of catalytic activity when exposed to a variety of denaturing conditions are of high importance for a number of biotechnological applications. In this study, we aimed to identify new lipolytic enzymes, which are highly resistant to prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. To achieve this, we searched for genes encoding for such proteins in the genomes of a microbial consortium residing in a hot spring located in China. After performing functional genomic screening on a bacterium of the genus Dictyoglomus, which was isolated from this hot spring following in situ enrichment, we identified a new esterolytic enzyme, termed EstDZ3. Detailed biochemical characterization of the recombinant enzyme, revealed that it constitutes a slightly alkalophilic and highly active esterase against esters of fatty acids with short to medium chain lengths. Importantly, EstDZ3 exhibits remarkable thermostability, as it retains high levels of catalytic activity after exposure to temperatures as high as 95°C for several hours. Furthermore, it exhibits very good stability against exposure to high concentrations of a variety of organic solvents. Interestingly, EstDZ3 was found to have very little similarity to previously characterized esterolytic enzymes. Computational modeling of the three-dimensional structure of this new enzyme predicted that it exhibits a typical α/ß hydrolase fold that seems to include a "subdomain insertion", which is similar to the one present in its closest homolog of known function and structure, the cinnamoyl esterase Lj0536 from Lactobacillus johnsonii. As it was found in the case of Lj0536, this structural feature is expected to be an important determinant of the catalytic properties of EstDZ3. The high levels of esterolytic activity of EstDZ3, combined with its remarkable thermostability and good stability against a range of organic solvents and other denaturing agents, render this new enzyme a candidate biocatalyst for high-temperature biotechnological applications.

Synthesis of (benzimidazol-2-yl)aniline derivatives as glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors.

A series of (benzimidazol-2-yl)-aniline (1) derivatives has been synthesized and evaluated as glycogen phosphorylase (GP) inhibitors. Kinetics studies revealed that compounds displaying a lateral heterocyclic residue with several heteroatoms (series 3 and 5) exhibited modest inhibitory properties with IC50 values in the 400-600µM range. Arylsulfonyl derivatives 7 (Ar: phenyl) and 9 (Ar: o-nitrophenyl) of 1 exhibited the highest activity (series 2) among the studied compounds (IC50 324µM and 357µM, respectively) with stronger effect than the p-tolyl analogue 8.

A common 'aggregation-prone' interface possibly participates in the self-assembly of human zona pellucida proteins.

Human zona pellucida (ZP) is composed of four glycoproteins, namely ZP1, ZP2, ZP3 and ZP4. ZP proteins form heterodimers, which are incorporated into filaments through a common bipartite polymerizing component, designated as the ZP domain. The latter is composed of two individually folded subdomains, named ZP-N and ZP-C. Here, we have synthesized six 'aggregation-prone' peptides, corresponding to a common interface of human ZP2, ZP3 and ZP4. Experimental results utilizing electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, ATR FT-IR spectroscopy and polarizing microscopy indicate that these peptides self-assemble forming fibrils with distinct amyloid-like features. Finally, by performing detailed modeling and docking, we attempt to shed some light in the self-assembly mechanism of human ZP proteins.

Glucose-derived spiro-isoxazolines are anti-hyperglycemic agents against type 2 diabetes through glycogen phosphorylase inhibition.

Glycogen phosphorylase (GP) is a target for the treatment of hyperglycaemia in the context of type 2 diabetes. This enzyme is responsible for the depolymerization of glycogen into glucose thereby affecting the levels of glucose in the blood stream. Twelve new d-glucopyranosylidene-spiro-isoxazolines have been prepared from O-peracylated exo-D-glucals by regio- and stereoselective 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of nitrile oxides generated in situ by treatment of the corresponding oximes with bleach. This mild and direct procedure appeared to be applicable to a broad range of substrates. The corresponding O-unprotected spiro-isoxazolines were evaluated as glycogen phosphorylase (GP) inhibitors and exhibited IC50 values ranging from 1 to 800 µM. Selected inhibitors were further evaluated in vitro using rat and human hepatocytes and exhibited significant inhibitory properties in the primary cell culture. Interestingly, when tested with human hepatocytes, the tetra-O-acetylated spiro-isoxazoline bearing a 2-naphthyl residue showed a much lower IC50 value (2.5 µM), compared to that of the O-unprotected analog (19.95 µM). The most promising compounds were investigated in Zucker fa/fa rat model in acute and sub-chronic assays and decreased hepatic glucose production, which is known to be elevated in type 2 diabetes. This indicates that glucose-based spiro-isoxazolines can be considered as anti-hyperglycemic agents in the context of type 2 diabetes.

Discovery of the glycogen phosphorylase-modulating activity of a resveratrol glucoside by using a virtual screening protocol optimized for solvation effects.

The identification of natural products that can modulate blood glucose levels is of great interest as it can possibly facilitate the utilization of mild interventions such as herbal medicine or functional foods in the treatment of chronic diseases like diabetes. One of the established drug targets for antihyperglycemic therapy is glycogen phosphorylase. To evaluate the glycogen phosphorylase inhibitory properties of an in-house compound collection consisting to a large extent of natural products, a stepwise virtual and experimental screening protocol was devised and implemented. The fact that the active site of glycogen phosphorylase is highly hydrated emphasized that a methodological aspect needed to be efficiently addressed prior to an in silico evaluation of the compound collection. The effect of water molecules on docking calculations was regarded as a key parameter in terms of virtual screening protocol optimization. Statistical analysis of 125 structures of glycogen phosphorylase and solvent mapping focusing on the active site hydration motif in combination with a retrospective screening revealed the importance of a set of 29 crystallographic water molecules for achieving high enrichment as to the discrimination between active compounds and inactive decoys. The scaling of Van der Waals radii of system atoms had an additional effect on screening performance. Having optimized the in silico protocol, a prospective evaluation of the in-house compound collection derived a set of 18 top-ranked natural products that were subsequently evaluated in vitro for their activity as glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors. Two phenolic glucosides with glycogen phosphorylase-modulating activity were identified, whereas the most potent compound affording mid-micromolar inhibition was a glucosidic derivative of resveratrol, a stilbene well-known for its wide range of biological activities. Results show the possible phytotherapeutic and nutraceutical potential of products common in the Mediterranean countries, such as red wine and Vitis products in general or green raw salads and herbal preparations, where such compounds are abundant.

Glucopyranosylidene-spiro-iminothiazolidinone, a new bicyclic ring system: synthesis, derivatization, and evaluation for inhibition of glycogen phosphorylase by enzyme kinetic and crystallographic methods.

The reaction of thiourea with O-perbenzoylated C-(1-bromo-1-deoxy-ß-D-glucopyranosyl)formamide gave the new anomeric spirocycle 1R-1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol-spiro-[1,5]-2-imino-1,3-thiazolidin-4-one. Acylation and sulfonylation with the corresponding acyl chlorides (RCOCl or RSO2Cl where R=tBu, Ph, 4-Me-C6H4, 1- and 2-naphthyl) produced the corresponding 2-acylimino- and 2-sulfonylimino-thiazolidinones, respectively. Alkylation by MeI, allyl-bromide and BnBr produced mixtures of the respective N-alkylimino- and N,N'-dialkyl-imino-thiazolidinones, while reactions with 1,2-dibromoethane and 1,3-dibromopropane furnished spirocyclic 5,6-dihydro-imidazo[2,1-b]thiazolidin-3-one and 6,7-dihydro-5H-thiazolidino[3,2-a]pyrimidin-3-one, respectively. Removal of the O-benzoyl protecting groups by the Zemplén protocol led to test compounds most of which proved micromolar inhibitors of rabbit muscle glycogen phosphorylase b (RMGPb). Best inhibitors were the 2-benzoylimino- (Ki=9µM) and the 2-naphthoylimino-thiazolidinones (Ki=10 µM). Crystallographic studies of the unsubstituted spiro-thiazolidinone and the above most efficient inhibitors in complex with RMGPb confirmed the preference and inhibitory effect that aromatic (and especially 2-naphthyl) derivatives show for the catalytic site promoting the inactive conformation of the enzyme.