The relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and inhibitory control following acute stress: An ERP study.

Although the relationships among acute stress, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and cognitive function have been examined, whether CRF is related to behavioral and neuroelectric indices of inhibitory control following acute stress remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the combined influence of acute stress and CRF on inhibitory control. Participants, aged 20-30 years, were stratified into the Higher-Fit (n = 31) and the Lower-Fit (n = 32) groups, and completed a Stroop task following the modified Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) in the stress condition and the sham-MAST in the non-stress condition, during which electroencephalography was recorded. Behavioral (i.e., response time and accuracy) and neuroelectric (N2 and P3b components of the event-related potential) outcomes of inhibitory control were obtained. While the Higher-Fit group demonstrated shorter response times and higher accuracy than the Lower-Fit group following both the MAST and the sham-MAST, they also exhibited selective benefits of acute stress on inhibitory control performance (i.e., decreased response times and diminished interference scores). CRF-dependent alterations in neuroelectric indices were also observed, with the Higher-Fit group displaying smaller N2 and greater P3b amplitudes than the Lower-Fit group following the sham-MAST, and increased N2 and attenuated P3b amplitudes following the MAST. Collectively, these findings not only confirm the positive relationship between CRF and inhibitory control but also provide novel insights into the potential influence of CRF on inhibitory control and associated neuroelectric activity following acute stress.

Acute Exercise Effect on Neurocognitive Function Among Cognitively Normal Late-Middle-Aged Adults With/Without Genetic Risk of AD: The Moderating Role of Exercise Volume and APOE Genotype.

BACKGROUND: Acute exercise is a behavior that benefits cognitive function; however, its effect on populations with different risks for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the role of exercise variance and Apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype on this effect remains unknown. This study explores the acute exercise effect on behavioral and neurocognitive function, and its potential moderation by exercise intensity and duration and APOE genetic risk. METHODS: Fifty-one cognitively normal adults (~36% APOE ε4 carriers) performed the Stroop task under a rest condition and 3 exercise conditions while electroencephalographic activity was assessed. RESULTS: Acute exercise improved cognitive performance assessed through both behavioral and neuroelectrical indices. These benefits were observed regardless of adjustments of intensity and duration at a predetermined exercise volume as well as being evident irrespective of APOE ɛ4 carrier status. CONCLUSIONS: Acute exercise could be proposed as a lifestyle intervention to benefit neurocognitive function in populations with and without genetic risk of AD. Future exploration should further the precise exercise prescription and also the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of acute exercise for neurocognitive function. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT05591313.

The influence of volume-matched acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control in late-middle-aged and older adults: A neuroelectric study.

Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to benefit inhibitory control; however, less attention has been devoted to the effects of varying intensity and duration with a predetermined exercise volume. The current study assessed the influence of three distinct exercise conditions, each equated with a predesignated exercise volume but varied in terms of exercise durations and intensities, on inhibitory control utilizing both behavioral and neuroelectric measures obtained among late-middle-aged and older adults. Thirty-four adults (61.76 ± 0.80 years) completed three exercise conditions [i.e., a 30-min low-intensity exercise (LIE), a 20-min moderate-intensity exercise (MIE), and a 16-min high-intensity exercise (HIE)] and a non-exercise reading control condition (CON) on separate days. The exercise volumes of LIE and HIE were designed to match the exercise volume of MIE. Following cessation of each condition, the Stroop task was performed while event-related potentials were recorded. Improved behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response time, higher accuracy, and smaller interference scores) was observed after LIE, MIE, and HIE than CON (ps < .005). Additionally, whereas a larger P3b amplitude was only observed following MIE compared to CON (p < .01), larger N2 and smaller N450 amplitudes were observed following all three exercise conditions compared to CON (ps < .005). These findings suggested that while MIE may provide additional benefits for attentional resource allocation, exercise conditions volume matched to MIE resulted in superior inhibitory control, paralleled by modulations of the neural underpinnings of conflict monitoring/detection.

Effect of mindfulness-based intervention on endurance performance under pressure and performance-relevant mental attributes, an interdisciplinary perspective: Protocol for a Mindfulness-Based Peak Performance (MBPP) trial.

Performance under pressure is one of the primary features of competitive sports. Considering that increased competition levels are typically accompanied by elevated stress and anxiety, athletes' ability to cope with stress has gained even more importance in recent years. Accordingly, the current trial, entitled Mindfulness-based Peak Performance (MBPP), will take an interdisciplinary approach (e.g., sport psychology, sports training, and cognitive neuroscience), to more definitively examine whether a MBPP affects athletic performance under pressure and relevant mental attributes. This study is an 8-week, three-arm, randomized controlled trial (RCT). A total of 90 athletes, aged between 18 and 30 years will be recruited. Eligible participants will be randomly assigned into (1) an MBPP group, (2) a self-talk (ST) group, and (3) a wait-list control (WC) group. The MBPP and ST interventions consist of a 60-min session weekly for 8 weeks. Primary outcomes are endurance performance and performance-relevant mental attributes including behavior (i.e., stress response, emotion regulation, and engagement) and neurocognitive processes (e.g., attention, executive function, brain resting state), which will be assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Dispositional mindfulness and athletic psychological skills will be secondary outcomes, also assessed at baseline and post-intervention. The MBPP and ST are expected to improve performance under pressure, but MBPP is expected to show greater improvement than ST. Additionally, we expect the MBPP will improve the relevant mental attributes. The results from this trial might provide rigorous evidence and insight into MBI application in the sports context. ClinicalTrials.govregistration:NCT05612295.

Effects of exercise types on white matter microstructure in late midlife adults: Preliminary results from a diffusion tensor imaging study.

Higher aerobic fitness during late midlife is associated with higher white matter (WM) microstructure. Compared with individuals engaged in irregular exercise, those who engage in regular aerobic exercise show higher fractional anisotropy (FA), a diffusion tenor imaging (DTI) measure that provides an index of WM microstructural integrity. However, whether other types of exercise, such as Tai Chi, can also facilitate WM changes in adults during late midlife remains unknown. The present study compares two types of exercise, Tai Chi and walking, with a sedentary control group, in order to examine the effects of exercise on WM microstructure and determine the regional specificity of WM differences. Thirty-six healthy adults between the ages of 55 and 65 years participated in the study. Based on the participants' exercise habits, they were allocated into three groups: Tai Chi, walking, or sedentary control. All participants were required to complete physical fitness measurements and completed magnetic reasoning imaging (MRI) scans. Our results revealed that the Tai Chi group exhibited a higher FA value in the left cerebral peduncle, compared to the sedentary control group. We also observed that both the Tai Chi and walking groups exhibited higher FA values in the right uncinate fasciculus and the left external capsule, in comparison to the sedentary control group. Increased FA values in these regions was positively correlated with higher levels of physical fitness measurements (i.e., peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], muscular endurance/number of push-up, agility, power). These findings collectively suggest that regular exercise is associated with improved WM microstructural integrity, regardless of the exercise type, which could guide the development and application of future prevention and intervention strategies designed to address age-related cognitive impairments during late midlife.

Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Executive Function: A Systematic Review of the Moderating Role of Intensity and Executive Function Domain.

BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated that there is a beneficial effect of acute exercise on cognitive function; however, the moderators of the acute resistance exercise (RE) effect on executive function (EF) are underestimated. This systematic review aims to clarify the effects of acute RE on EF by examining the moderating effect of exercise intensity (light, moderate, and vigorous) and EF domains (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), as well as their interactions. METHODS: The search strategy was conducted in four databases (PubMed, Scopus, PsycARTICLES, and Cochrane Library) prior to January 29, 2022. Included studies had to: (1) investigate acute RE in adults with normal cognition and without diagnosed disease; (2) include a control group or control session for comparison; (3) include outcomes related to the core EF domains; and (4) be published in English. The methodological quality of the included studies was judged according to the PEDro scale guidelines. RESULTS: Nineteen studies were included which included a total of 692 participants. More than half of the outcomes (24/42, 57.14%) indicate that acute RE had a statistically significant positive effect on overall EF. In terms of RE intensity and EF domain, moderate intensity acute RE benefited EF more consistently than light and vigorous intensity acute RE. Acute RE-induced EF benefits were more often found for inhibitory control than for working memory and cognitive flexibility. When considering moderators simultaneously, measuring inhibitory control after light or moderate intensity RE and measuring working memory or cognitive flexibility after moderate intensity RE most often resulted in statistically significant positive outcomes. CONCLUSION: Acute RE has a beneficial effect on EF, observed most consistently for inhibitory control following moderate intensity RE. Future studies should include all exercise intensities and EF domains as well as investigate other potential moderators to enable a better understanding of the benefits of acute RE on EF.

The multi-domain exercise intervention for memory and brain function in late middle-aged and older adults at risk for Alzheimer's disease: A protocol for Western-Eastern Brain Fitness Integration Training trial.

Background: Aging is associated with cognitive decline, increased risk for dementia, and deterioration of brain function. Modifiable lifestyle factors (e.g., exercise, meditation, and social interaction) have been proposed to benefit memory and brain function. However, previous studies have focused on a single exercise modality or a single lifestyle factor. Consequently, the effect of a more comprehensive exercise program that combines multiple exercise modalities and lifestyle factors, as well as examines potential mediators and moderators, on cognitive function and brain health in late middle-aged and older adults remains understudied. This study's primary aim is to examine the effect of a multi-domain exercise intervention on memory and brain function in cognitively healthy late middle-aged and older adults. In addition, we will examine whether apolipoprotein E (ApoE) genotypes, physical fitness (i.e., cardiovascular fitness, body composition, muscular fitness, flexibility, balance, and power), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) moderate and mediate the exercise intervention effects on memory and brain function. Methods: The Western-Eastern Brain Fitness Integration Training (WE-BFit) is a single-blinded, double-arm, 6-month randomized controlled trial. One hundred cognitively healthy adults, aged 45-70 years, with different risks for Alzheimer's disease (i.e., ApoE genotype) will be recruited and randomized into either a multi-domain exercise group or an online educational course control group. The exercise intervention consists of one 90-min on-site and several online sessions up to 60 min per week for 6 months. Working memory, episodic memory, physical fitness, and BDNF will be assessed before and after the 6-month intervention. The effects of the WE-BFit on memory and brain function will be described and analyzed. We will further examine how ApoE genotype and changes in physical fitness and BDNF affect the effects of the intervention. Discussion: WE-BFit is designed to improve memory and brain function using a multi-domain exercise intervention. The results will provide insight into the implementation of an exercise intervention with multiple domains to preserve memory and brain function in adults with genetic risk levels for Alzheimer's disease. Clinical trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT05068271.

The Association of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Relation to Cognitive Flexibility: An Event-Related Potential Study.

This study investigates an association between obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness concerning their potential effects on cognitive flexibility in young adults from behavioral and neuroelectrical perspectives. Eligible young adults (N = 140, 18-25 years) were assigned into one of four groups, according to their status of obesity (i.e., body mass index) and cardiorespiratory fitness levels (i.e., estimated maximal oxygen uptake), namely, normal weight with high cardiorespiratory fitness (NH), obese with high cardiorespiratory fitness (OH), normal weight with low cardiorespiratory fitness (NL), and obese with low cardiorespiratory fitness (OL). The task-switching test was utilized, and its induced endogenous (P3) and exogenous (N1) event-related potential components were recorded. Concerning behavioral indices, the NH demonstrated superior behavioral performance across global switching and local switching of the task-switching test compared to individuals with lower cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity (i.e., NL, OH, and OL). Additionally, the OH demonstrated better performance than the OL during the heterogeneous condition. For neuroelectrical indices, the NH had larger mean P3 amplitudes during global and local switching than the other three groups. A larger N1 amplitude was also observed in the NH during local switching than in the OH group. The findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness has beneficial effects on cognitive flexibility, attentional resource allocation, and sensory evaluation in young adults. Furthermore, our research provided novel evidence showing that cardiorespiratory fitness might potentially alleviate the adverse effects of obesity on cognitive flexibility in young adults.

Cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with sustained neurocognitive function during a prolonged inhibitory control task in young adults: An ERP study.

Although beneficial associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function have been established, whether cardiorespiratory fitness is related to behavioral and neuroelectric indices of performance during a prolonged inhibitory control task remains unknown. Young adults, categorized into High and Low Fitness groups, completed a 60-min Stroop task, while the N1 and P3 components of event-related potentials were measured. The results showed that the High Fitness group demonstrated shorter response times, regardless of the Stroop task congruency or time-on-task, than Low Fitness group. The High Fitness group also exhibited larger P3 amplitudes than the Low Fitness group, but no differences in N1 amplitudes were observed. These findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness during young adulthood has beneficial effects on task performance and attention allocation during an inhibitory control task, and these benefits can be sustained for 60 min.

The Combined Effects of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Are Associated with Response Inhibition: An ERP Study.

Obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness exhibit negative and positive impacts, respectively, on executive function. Nevertheless, the combined effects of these two factors on executive function remain unclear. This study investigated the combined effects of obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness on response inhibition of executive function from both behavioral and neuroelectric perspectives. Ninety-six young adults aged between 18 and 25 years were recruited and assigned into four groups: the high cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NH), high cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OH), low cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NL), and low cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OL) groups. The stop-signal task and its induced P3 component of event-related potentials was utilized to index response inhibition. The participants with higher cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NH and OH groups) demonstrated better behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response times and higher accuracy levels), as well as shorter stop-signal response times and larger P3 amplitudes than their counterparts with low cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NL and OL groups). The study provides first-hand evidence of the substantial effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on the response inhibition, including evidence that the detrimental effects of obesity might be overcome by high cardiorespiratory fitness.

Exercise Behavior and Mood during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Taiwan: Lessons for the Future.

The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and its associated governmental recommendations and restrictions have influenced many aspects of human life, including exercise and mental health. This study aims to explore the influence of COVID-19 on exercise behavior and its impact on mood states, as well as predict changes in exercise behavior during a similar future pandemic in Taiwan. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted between 7 April and 13 May 2020 (n = 1114). Data on exercise behavior pre and during the pandemic and mood states were collected. A cumulative link model was used to predict changes in exercise frequency during a similar future pandemic by exercise frequency during the pandemic. A linear model was used to predict the influence of exercise frequency before and during the pandemic on mood states during the pandemic. A total of 71.2%, 67.3%, and 58.3% of respondents maintained their exercise intensity, frequency, and duration, respectively, during the pandemic. Frequent exercisers are more likely to maintain their exercise frequency during a similar pandemic (p < 0.001). Higher exercise frequencies during the pandemic were associated with better mood states (p < 0.05). Moreover, the effects of prepandemic exercise frequency on mood states are moderated by changes in exercise frequency during the pandemic (p < 0.05). Additionally, maintenance of exercise frequency during a pandemic specifically for frequent exercisers are recommended to preserve mood states. These results may provide evidence for health policies on exercise promotion and mental health before and during a future pandemic.

Mindfulness Training Enhances Endurance Performance and Executive Functions in Athletes: An Event-Related Potential Study.

Mindfulness interventions have been linked to improved sport performance and executive functions; however, few studies have explored the effects of mindfulness on sport performance and executive functions simultaneously. This study sought to examine whether a mindfulness training program would affect both the endurance performance and executive functions of athletes. In addition, event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with the Stroop task were assessed to investigate the potential electrophysiological activation associated with the mindfulness training. Applying a quasiexperimental design, forty-six university athletes were recruited and assigned into a five-week mindfulness training program or a waiting list control group. For each participant, the mindfulness level, endurance performance assessed by a graded exercise test, executive functions assessed via Stroop task, and N2 component of ERPs were measured prior to and following the 5-week intervention. After adjusting for the preintervention scores as a covariate, it was found that the postintervention mindfulness level, exhaustion time, and Stroop task accuracy scores, regardless of task condition, of the mindfulness group were higher than those of the control group. The mindfulness group also exhibited a smaller N2 amplitude than the control group. These results suggest that the five-week mindfulness program can enhance the mindfulness level, endurance performance, and multiple cognitive functions, including executive functions, of university athletes. Mindfulness training may also reduce conflict monitoring in neural processes.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Age, and Multiple Aspects of Executive Function Among Preadolescent Children.

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and age have been positively associated with children's executive function; however, few studies have simultaneously assessed the associations between both variables and different aspects of executive function among preadolescent children. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate the simultaneous influence of CRF and age on three aspects of executive function. Preadolescent children's (n = 338) CRF levels were estimated based on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test and then grouped into two age groups (Young Group: 9-10 years old and Old Group: 11-12 years old). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted for the 2-back task, the Flanker task, and the Local-Global task to assess the influence of CRF and age on working memory, inhibitory control, and shifting, respectively. Preadolescent children with greater CRF levels were associated with higher response accuracy during the 2-back task and shorter response time across congruent and incongruent conditions of the Flanker task, whereas older children showed generally superior cognitive performance. Notably, only the Old Group's CRF was positively correlated with the accuracy in the switching condition of the Local-Global task. These findings suggest that CRF or age was generally associated with better performances in working memory and inhibitory control aspects of executive function. Furthermore, the positive influence of CRF on shifting may be modulated by developed cortical maturation.

The Effect of Exercise Training on Brain Structure and Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review Based on Evidence from Randomized Control Trials.

Accumulating evidence suggests that exercise training is associated with improvements in brain health in older adults, yet the extant literature is insufficient in detailing why exercise training facilitates brain structure and function. Specifically, few studies have employed the FITT-VP principle (i.e., Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type, Volume, and Progression) to characterize the exercise exposure, thus research is yet to specify which characteristics of exercise training benefit brain outcomes. To determine whether exercise training is consequential to cognitive and brain outcomes, we conducted a systematic review investigating the effects of exercise training on brain structure and function in older adults. PubMed and Scopus were searched from inception to February 2020, and study quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. A total of 24 randomized controlled trials were included. This systematic review indicates that older adults involved in exercise training may derive general benefits to brain health, as reflected by intervention-induced changes in brain structure and function. However, such benefits are dependent upon the dose of the exercise intervention. Importantly, current evidence remains limited for applied exercise prescriptions (e.g., volume, progression) and future research is needed to clarify the effects of exercise training on cognitive and brain outcomes in older adults.

Acute coordinative exercise ameliorates general and food-cue related cognitive function in obese adolescents.

Whether the acute coordinative exercise could affect the inhibitory control and food-cue related attention in obese adolescents remains understudied. Therefore, this study used the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test to explore the impacts of 20 min of acute coordinative exercise on the cognitive tests involving inhibitory control and attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli, respectively, in obese adolescents. Thirty-eight obese adolescents (mean age = 14.63 ± 0.69 years) were equally divided into exercise and control groups. The cognitive tests (i.e., the Stroop test and the food-cue related Stroop test) and hunger scores were conducted and assessed before and after an intervention. The exercise group had significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference in the congruent (-1.04 ± 0.29 ms) and incongruent (-5.76 ± 1.66 ms) conditions of the Stroop test than the control group (ps < 0.01), and a smaller post-interference (1.13 ± 0.14) than the pre-interference (1.31 ± 0.14, p = 0.04). Moreover, a significantly larger negative pre-post response time difference on the food-cue related Stroop test was observed in the exercise group (-4.42 ± 7.20 ms) than the control group (1.76 ± 8.37 ms, p = 0.02). Collectively, an acute coordinative exercise session could induce superior inhibitory control and less attentional bias towards food-cue related stimuli in obese adolescents.

Effects of Acute Exercise Duration on the Inhibition Aspect of Executive Function in Late Middle-Aged Adults.

Objective: This study investigated whether acute exercise duration affects inhibition in late middle-aged adults. Methods: Over four separate days, 40 late middle-aged adults completed, in a counterbalanced order, three exercise sessions consisting of single bouts of moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling, with the main acute exercise durations being 10, 20, and 45 min, and a control session consisting of 30 min of reading. Their inhibition performance was then evaluated by administration of the Stroop test following each session. Results: The participants had shorter mean response times for both the congruent and neutral conditions of the Stroop following the acute exercise lasting 20 min than they did after the control session. The acute exercise lasting 20 min also resulted in shorter response times for both conditions of the Stroop than the acute exercise lasting only 10 min. Meanwhile, the acute exercise lasting 45 min resulted in a shorter mean response time for the neutral Stroop condition than did the control session. Finally, the acute exercise lasting 20 min resulted in the shortest mean response time of all four sessions for the Stroop incongruent condition. Conclusion: The above findings suggest that the moderate-to-vigorous intensity acute exercise lasting 20 min facilitated multiple cognitive function domains in general, whereas the exercise sessions of shorter and longer duration had negligible effects on executive function in the late middle-aged adults. These results highlight the need to consider the duration of any moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise when developing acute exercise programs to facilitate executive function in aged populations.

Effects of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on executive function: An ERP study.

OBJECTIVES: This study addressed the effects of acute, moderate-intensity aerobic and resistance exercise on the shifting aspect of cognition following a 30-min recovery period. It also explored the neuro-electrical activation that underlies the relationship between acute exercise and cognitive function through the examination of P3b and N1 components of event-related potentials. DESIGN: A counterbalanced, repeated-measures experimental design. METHODS: Thirty-five volunteer young adults completed two experimental sessions (i.e., acute aerobic exercise (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), matched in terms of intensity, and one reading session (control). The AE entailed cycling at 60-70% of maximal heart rate reserve for 30min. In the RE session, participants performed seven exercises with two sets of 8-12 repetitions at 70% of 10-repetition maximum. Each participant's neuro-electrical activation was recorded 30min after each session while s/he completed the task-switching test. RESULTS: After the 30-min recovery period, both AE and RE elicited shorter response times in global switching (ηp2=0.24) and local switching (ηp2=0.16) were observed when compared to control. Additionally, larger P3b amplitudes (but not N1 amplitudes) were evident in global switching (ηp2=0.15) and local switching (ηp2=0.16), regardless of exercise modality. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings suggest that acute exercise has positive effects on cognitive function. Exercise-induced alterations during the later stages of mental processing might result in superior performance. There were significant selective benefits in terms of brain function regardless of exercise modality.

The effects of negative air ions on cognitive function: an event-related potential (ERP) study.

This study investigated the effects of negative air ions (NAIs) on cognitive function in young male adults, specifically examined whether NAIs could influence the behavioral and neuroelectrical indices of inhibition. Thirty-nine young adults participated in the NAI and the control sessions in a counterbalanced order. A computerized Stroop color-word test was administrated, and N2 of the event-related potential was recorded and then analyzed. The results revealed that participants in the NAI session demonstrated shorter reaction times and higher accuracy for both Stroop congruent and incongruent trials. Larger N2 amplitudes were also observed in the NAI session than in the control session, whereas no alterations in the latencies were found. These findings suggest that NAIs resulted in a general improvement in both basic information processing and inhibition. This facilitation may be related to an enhanced neuronal processing or alertness status reflected by larger amplitudes of the N2 component.

Age, period and birth cohort effects on the prevalence of overweight and obesity among Taiwanese adolescents: a national population-based study.

BACKGROUND: The age-period-cohort effects on youth overweight and obesity among junior and senior high school students in Taiwan is not clear. METHODS: We utilized the 2006-14 nationally representative School Physical Fitness Dataset. Based on the International Obesity Task Force cut-off criteria, a log-linear age-period-cohort analysis was performed to determine the influence of age, period and cohort on the trend in being overweight, obese and severely obese for both sexes. RESULTS: The final dataset included 1073173 individuals (n = 520 382 boys and 552 791 girls). For girls, the prevalence of overweight and obesity declined with age, and the prevalence of overweight declined over time. For boys, the prevalence of overweight and obesity declined with age and over time from 2006 to 2014. The prevalence of severe obesity declined over time and increased with age for the boys. The younger birth cohorts had greater odds of being overweight, obese and severely obese than the older birth cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: After differentiating the age-period-cohort effects, the data suggested a decreasing temporal trend in overweight and obesity among adolescents in Taiwan from 2006 to 2014. Among the birth cohorts of the 1990s, the younger cohorts had greater odds of being overweight and obese than the older cohorts when they reached adolescence.

Acute Exercise and Neurocognitive Development in Preadolescents and Young Adults: An ERP Study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a single bout of exercise on neurocognitive function in preadolescent children and young adults by determining the modulatory role of age and the neuroelectrical mechanism(s) underlying the association between acute exercise and executive function. Twenty preadolescents and 20 young adults completed the Stroop test, and neuroelectrical activity was recorded during two treatment sessions performed in a counterbalanced order. Exercise treatments involved moderate intensity aerobic exercise for 20 min as the main exercise and two 5 min periods of warm-up and cool-down. The control treatment participants read for a similar duration of time. Acute exercise improved participant reaction times on the Stroop test, regardless of Stroop congruency, and greater beneficial effects were observed in young adults compared to those in preadolescents. The P3 amplitudes increased after acute exercise in preadolescents and young adults, but acute exercise induced lower conflict sustained potential (conflict SP) amplitudes in preadolescent children. Based on these findings, age influences the beneficial effect of acute exercise on cognitive performance in general. Furthermore, the event-related brain potential differences attributed to acute exercise provide a potential clue to the mechanisms that differentiate the effects of acute exercise on individuals from preadolescence to young adulthood.