Maternal Postpartum Work Resumption Stress: Questionnaire Development and Validation.

Transitioning back to work after maternity leave is increasingly common. While differences exist, for many mothers this transition represents a stressor. This study aimed to define the construct of maternal postpartum work resumption stress and develop and validate a self-report measure in a low-risk sample of Dutch mothers. First, the item pool (N = 71) and face and content validity of the questionnaire were established. Next, two independent samples of mothers returning to work (N = 298, N = 291) were recruited to identify factor structure, reduce the number of items, and assess the dimensionality, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity of the questionnaire. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, the reliable and valid REturn to Work INventory (REWINd) with 30 items across three factors was established. While further validation is needed, REWINd can be used to further study the nature and consequences of maternal postpartum work resumption stress.

The bidirectional associations between self-esteem and problematic eating behaviors in adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Theories propose that low self-esteem and problematic eating behaviors (PEBs) negatively impact each other. While previous studies suggested bidirectional associations between self-esteem and PEBs, they did not separate within-person from between-person associations. Therefore, this prospective study investigated the within-person bidirectional associations between self-esteem and four PEBs in adolescence, while accounting for between-person differences. METHOD: We used two independent longitudinal samples of Dutch adolescents, each including three annually collected waves of data. Sample 1 consisted of 1856 adolescents (Baseline: 50.4% males; Mage = 13.79 years, SDage = 0.72), with measures of self-esteem, emotional eating, restrained eating, and loss of control (LOC) while overeating. Sample 2 consisted of 555 adolescents (Baseline: 49.7% males; Mage = 13.13 years, SDage = 0.68), with measures of self-esteem and LOC eating. The data were analyzed using random intercept cross-lagged panel models (CLPMs). RESULTS: Within persons, lower self-esteem was associated with higher emotional and restrained eating (both Sample 1) one year later, and vice versa. Self-esteem did not predict, nor was predicted by, LOC while overeating (Sample 1) or LOC eating (Sample 2). Between persons, self-esteem was negatively correlated with all PEBs (Samples 1 and 2). DISCUSSION: We found within-person bidirectional associations between low self-esteem and emotional and restrained eating (but not LOC while overeating/LOC eating), and between-person correlations between low self-esteem and all PEBs. These results have theoretical and practical implications. Within-person processes clarify underlying mechanisms that explain the occurrence of PEBs; between-person associations are important to identify adolescents at risk of PEBs. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: While theories indicate that low self-esteem and PEBs are inversely associated within individuals, empirical studies have not disentangled within-person processes from between-person differences. This study addressed this disparity, finding that lower self-esteem was bidirectionally associated with higher emotional and restrained eating (but not LOC eating) within persons. These findings suggest that enhancing self-esteem is a viable option for prevention and intervention.

Developmental shift in testosterone influence on prefrontal emotion control.

A paradox of testosterone effects is seen in adolescents versus adults in social emotional approach-avoidance behavior. During adolescence, high testosterone levels are associated with increased anterior prefrontal (aPFC) involvement in emotion control, whereas during adulthood this neuro-endocrine relation is reversed. Rodent work shows that, during puberty, testosterone transitions from a neuro-developmental to a social-sexual activating hormone. In this study, we explored whether this functional transition is also present in human adolescents and young adults. Using a prospective longitudinal design, we investigated the role of testosterone on neural control of social emotional behavior during the transitions from middle to late adolescence and into young adulthood. Seventy-one individuals (tested at ages 14, 17, and 20 years) performed an fMRI-adapted approach-avoidance (AA) task involving automatic and controlled actions in response to social emotional stimuli. In line with predictions from animal models, the effect of testosterone on aPFC engagement decreased between middle and late adolescence, and shifted into an activational role by young adulthood-impeding neural control of emotions. This change in testosterone function was accompanied by increased testosterone-modulated amygdala reactivity. These findings qualify the testosterone-dependent maturation of the prefrontal-amygdala circuit supporting emotion control during the transition from middle adolescence into young adulthood.

Childhood cerebral visual impairment subtype classification based on an extensive versus a limited test battery.

Purpose: To classify CVI subtypes and compare the added value of an extensive test battery over a limited test battery in subtype classification of cerebral visual impairment (CVI) in children. Methods: Seventy-five children with a clinical diagnosis of CVI (median [IQR] age: 9 [7-12] years) were identified from the medical records. The extensive test battery included visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, ocular alignment, eye movement analysis, visual field analysis, optic nerve head evaluation, and evaluation of visual perception. The limited test battery included visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, ocular alignment, and evaluation of visual perception. Principal component analysis (PCA) followed by cluster analysis was done, for both test batteries separately, to determine the optimum subtype classification for CVI. Results: Fifty-one participants with an extensive test battery with mild to moderate visual impairment were included in the main analysis. This resulted in four CVI subtypes for the extensive test battery (subtle characteristics, higher-level visual function deficits, lower-level visual function deficits, and higher- and lower- level visual function deficits) and three CVI subtypes for the limited test battery (subtle characteristics, higher-level visual function deficits, and higher- and lower- level visual function deficits). There were significant differences between the subtypes for 9 out of 10 measures of the extensive and all 4 measures of the limited test battery (p < 0.05). The subtle characteristics subtype (extensive n = 19, limited n = 15) showed near normal lower and higher-level visual functions in both test batteries. The higher-level visual function deficits subtype (extensive n = 18, limited n = 24) showed near normal visual acuity combined with significant visual perceptual deficits in both test batteries; accompanied by visual pathways defects and abnormal eye movement behavior in the extensive test battery. The higher- and lower- level visual function deficits subtype (extensive n = 4, limited n = 12) showed both higher and lower-level visual function deficits in both test batteries, but application of the extensive test battery revealed additional visual pathways defects and abnormal eye movement behavior. The lower-level visual function deficits CVI subtype (extensive n = 10) was a new subtype identified by the extensive test battery. This subtype showed lower-level visual function deficits together with abnormal eye movement measures. Conclusion: This data-driven study has provided meaningful CVI subtype classifications based on the outcomes of various key functional and structural measures in CVI diagnosis. Comparison of the extensive test battery to the limited test battery revealed the added value of an extensive test battery in classifying CVI. The outcomes of this study, therefore, have provided a new direction in the area of CVI classification.

Friendships in Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Parental and Friendship Attachment Representations and Intimacy.

The current studies addressed the associations between attachment representations with parents and a single best friend, intimacy behaviors (self-disclosure and support-seeking), and friendship quality in emerging adulthood, using the actor-partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM). Study 1 (N = 186 dyads) examined whether attachment to parents predicted friendship quality, and whether this was mediated by attachment to their best friend. More avoidance or anxiety with parents predicted lower friendship quality, which was mediated by avoidance or anxiety with their best friend. Study 2 (N = 118 dyads) examined whether self-disclosure and support-seeking mediated the link between attachment with best friend and friendship quality. Anxiety with their best friend predicted lower friendship quality, which was mediated by support-seeking. Anxiety predicted less self-disclosure and support-seeking. We found no effects of avoidance. No partner effects were found in both studies. The findings are discussed in terms of adult attachment theory.

Bullying and the Abuse of Power.

Dan Olweus pioneered research on school bullying and identified the importance of, and risk factors associated with, bullying and victimization. In this paper, we conduct a narrative review of the critical notion of power within bullying. Specifically, we discuss Olweus's definition of bullying and the role of a power imbalance in distinguishing bullying behavior from other forms of aggression. Next, we discuss the changing nature of research on aggression (and the adaptiveness of aggression) throughout the years, the important role of power in these changes, and how the concept of power in relationships has helped elucidate the developmental origins of bullying. We discuss bullying interventions and the potential opportunities for interventions to reduce bullying by making conditions for bullying less favorable and beneficial. Finally, we discuss bullying and the abuse of power that extends beyond the school context and emerges within families, workplaces, and governments. By recognizing and defining school bullying as an abuse of power and a violation of human rights, Olweus has laid the foundation and created the impetus for researching and addressing bullying. This review highlights the importance of examining abuses of power not only in school relationships, but across human relationships and society in general.

University students' (binge) drinking during COVID-19 lockdowns: An investigation of depression, social context, resilience, and changes in alcohol use.

RATIONALE: The first COVID-19 lockdown impacted the social life and behaviors of university students, such as alcohol use. While previous studies have reported changes in students' alcohol use during the lockdown, knowledge of risk groups like binge drinkers is limited. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to investigate how the first lockdown impacted the alcohol use of university students who were regular binge drinkers before the lockdown. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were used to explore self-reported changes in alcohol use and associated psychosocial effects in regular binge drinking versus regular drinking university students (N = 7355) during the first COVID-19 lockdown (Spring 2020) in the Netherlands. RESULTS: University students generally drank less alcohol and reduced binge drinking behaviors during the lockdown. Being a binge drinker who increased/maintained alcohol use, or a regular drinker who increased, was associated with older age, fewer servings of alcohol per week before COVID-19, higher contact with friends, and not living with parents. Among regular binge drinkers, men increased their alcohol use during the lockdown significantly more than women. Among regular drinkers, those with high depressive symptoms and low resilience had increased alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS: These findings give insight into significant changes in drinking behaviors among university students during the first COVID-19 lockdown. More importantly, it underscores the need to reckon vulnerable students considering drinking type and associated psychosocial variables for increasing or maintaining higher alcohol use during societal stress periods. In the present study, an unexpected at-risk group emerged among regular drinkers who increased alcohol use during the lockdown in association with their mental state (i.e., depression and resilience). As the COVID-19 pandemic, and the possibility of similar scenarios in the future, is still present in the current student life, specific preventive strategies and interventions should be targeted accordingly.

The longitudinal link between popularity, likeability, fear of negative evaluation and social avoidance across adolescence.

This study investigated the longitudinal bidirectional associations between likeability, popularity, fear of negative evaluation, and social avoidance, to aid in preventing the negative consequences and persistent trajectories of low social status and heightened social anxiety. In total, 1741 adolescents in grades 7-9 participated at 3 yearly waves. A self-report questionnaire measured fear of negative evaluation. Peer nominations assessed likeability, popularity, and social avoidance. Lower popularity predicted more avoidance, and vice versa. More avoidance was related to lower likeability over time. Being less popular and/or more liked by peers, increased fear of negative evaluation. Support for a transactional model between social anxiety and social status was found, but distinguishing different social status and social anxiety components is necessary.

Deployment-related PTSD symptomatology and social functioning: Probing the mediating roles of emotion regulation and mentalization in an outpatient veteran sample.

Deployment-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) impacts social functioning in families. Therefore, it is important to examine the factors that contribute to social functioning in families that are confronted with deployment-related PTSD. The goal of this study was to assess the association between PTSD symptom severity and social functioning using self-report questionnaires in an outpatient veteran sample and to test the mediating roles of emotion regulation (Study 1, N = 100) and mentalization (Study 2, N = 38). Study 1 demonstrated that emotion regulation problems fully mediated PTSD associated family dysfunctioning. Study 2 did not demonstrate a mediation role of mentalization, but also did not demonstrate an association between PTSD and social dysfunctioning. Maladaptive mentalization was associated with poor child adjustment. Critically, a between-study comparison revealed that PTSD symptom severity was significantly higher in Study 1 than in Study 2. Overall, our findings suggest that social dysfunctioning may only appear when a given severity threshold of PTSD is reached, in which emotion regulation might be a key clinical factor. Maladaptive mentalization may be critical for post-deployment child adjustment. Future research should further examine social functioning in samples with different PTSD severity profiles and include the role of mentalization. Longitudinal data are needed to gain further insight into the causal relationships among the factors considered and the etiological pathways that lead to developing social dysfunction over time.

Structural Brain Correlates of Childhood Inhibited Temperament: An ENIGMA-Anxiety Mega-analysis.

Temperament involves stable behavioral and emotional tendencies that differ between individuals, which can be first observed in infancy or early childhood and relate to behavior in many contexts and over many years.1 One of the most rigorously characterized temperament classifications relates to the tendency of individuals to avoid the unfamiliar and to withdraw from unfamiliar people, objects, and unexpected events. This temperament is referred to as behavioral inhibition or inhibited temperament (IT).2 IT is a moderately heritable trait1 that can be measured in multiple species.3 In humans, levels of IT can be quantified from the first year of life through direct behavioral observations or reports by caregivers or teachers. Similar approaches as well as self-report questionnaires on current and/or retrospective levels of IT1 can be used later in life.

Differences in Aggression and Alcohol Use among Youth with Varying Levels of Victimization and Popularity Status.

Awareness that high-status adolescents can be targets of aggression has grown in recent years. However, questions remain about the associations of the confluence of victimization and popularity with adjustment. The current study fills this gap by examining the joint and unique effects of victimization and popularity on aggression and alcohol use. Participants were 804 Dutch adolescents (50.2% boys, Mage = 13.65) who were followed for one year. High-status victims were more aggressive and drank more alcohol than lower-status victims. High-status victims were also more proactively and indirectly aggressive and self-reported more bullying than high-status non-victims. Thus, the findings demonstrated a conjoined risk of victimization and popularity for some types of aggression.

Social cognitive performance in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Social support represents a key factor in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Social cognition - the ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to other people - is considered fundamental in making use of social support. Gaining knowledge on the link between PTSD and social cognition is therefore essential. Whilst social cognitive difficulties in patients with PTSD are documented, an understanding of which particular social cognitive processes might be affected more than others, is lacking. The current meta-analysis was therefore aimed to examine social cognitive functioning in four underlying social cognitive domains (mentalization, emotion recognition, social perception, and attributional style) in PTSD diagnosed patients versus controls. METHODS: Meta-analyzes were conducted on studies examining performance on at least one social cognitive domain in PTSD diagnosed patients compared to controls. RESULTS: 19 studies were included, involving 565 patients and 641 controls. Relative to controls, the PTSD group scored lower on overall social cognitive functioning (SMD = -0.42), specifically on mentalization (SMD = -0.81) and social perception (SMD = -0.30), whilst the latter should be interpreted with caution as only one study was found pertaining to this domain. No emotion recognition and attributional style differences were found. LIMITATIONS: There was evidence of moderate heterogeneity in the results of the included studies for overall social cognition and attributional style. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that social cognition represents a potential important clinical factor in PTSD and underscore the importance of differentiating between underlying social cognitive processes in research and treatment of PTSD.

Emerging Adults' Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Prospective Longitudinal Study on the Importance of Social Support.

The aim of this longitudinal study was to investigate emerging adults' mental health before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, and whether social support from mothers, fathers, and best friends moderated the change in mental health. Participants were 98 emerging adults (46% men) who were assessed prior to COVID-19 (M age = 20.60 years) and during the first lockdown (M age = 22.67 years). Results indicated that the pandemic did not uniformly lead to elevated levels of mental health problems, but instead depended on level of mental health problems prior to COVID-19 and the source of support. For emerging adults who already experienced more problems prior to COVID-19, more maternal support was related to decreases in general psychological distress and depressive symptoms, whereas more paternal support was related to increases in general psychological distress and depressive symptoms. Support from best friends were not associated with (changes in) mental health.

Adolescent Victim Types Across the Popularity Status Hierarchy: Differences in Internalizing Symptoms.

Previous studies have called attention to the fact that popular youth are not immune to peer victimization, suggesting there is heterogeneity in the popularity of victims. Yet, no study to date has determined whether victims with different levels of popularity status can be identified using person-oriented analysis. Such analysis is critically needed to confirm the existence of popular victims. Further, there remains a paucity of research on internalizing indices of such popular victims, especially compared to other victim and non-victim groups. To address this gap in the research literature, the current study used latent profile analysis to identify subgroups of victims based on victimization (self- and peer-report) and popularity (peer-report). This study sought to verify the existence of popular victims and to compare victim subgroups on loneliness and self-esteem. Participants were 804 Dutch adolescents (50.2% boys, Mage = 13.65 years, ranging from 11.29 to 16.75 years). The results revealed six subgroups, including a group of popular self-identified victims. Popular self-identified victims were generally less lonely than other victims, but had higher loneliness and lower self-esteem than non-victims. Implications are discussed for understanding the victimization experiences of high-status youth.

Trajectories of Loneliness and Psychosocial Functioning.

The present study examined the relationship between developmental patterns of loneliness and psychosocial functioning among adolescents (9-21 years; N = 110, 52% male). Four-wave longitudinal data were obtained from the Nijmegen Longitudinal Study (NLS) on Infant and Child Development. Loneliness was measured at 9, 13, 16, and 21 years of age and anxiety, depression and self-esteem at 9 and 21 years of age. Using k-means cluster analysis, three trajectories of loneliness were identified as "stable low" (56% of the subjects), "high decreasing" (22% of the subjects), and "low increasing" (22% of the subjects). Importantly, trajectories of loneliness across adolescence significantly predicted psychosocial functioning in young adulthood. Both the "high-decreasing" and "low-increasing" loneliness clusters were associated with higher risk of depression and lower self-esteem compared to the "stable low" loneliness cluster. The "low-increasing" loneliness cluster was associated with higher risk of anxiety compared to the "stable low" loneliness cluster. These results indicate that loneliness in adolescence is a vulnerability that manifests itself in higher levels of anxiety and depression and lower self-esteem in young adulthood.

Peer influence on problem behaviors among students with intellectual disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Students with intellectual disabilities (ID) exhibit increased rates of problem behaviors compared to those without ID. AIMS: Given the evidence of peer influence in typical development, we examined the impact of classmates' characteristics on problem behaviors of students with ID. We expected higher levels of problem behaviors in special needs classrooms will influence individual development of such behaviors. METHODS: A longitudinal design with measurements at the beginning and the end of a school year was applied. Staff reported on problem behaviors of 1125 students with ID (69 % boys; age 11.30 years,SD = 3.75) attending 16 Swiss special needs schools. RESULTS: The peer influence hypothesis was not supported for an overall problem behavior score. However, exploratory analyses suggested that peer influence did occur for the domains anxiety, problems in relating socially, and communication disturbances (not disruptive/antisocial, self-absorbed and other types of problem behaviors). The influence of classmates on anxiety was lower when there was more variability in anxiety within the classroom. The development of communication skills benefitted from attending a classroom that was heterogeneous in the level of communication problems. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the influence of peers on problem behaviors in special needs schools is not universal but varies between domains and depends on classroom characteristics.

The Role of Aggressive Peer Norms in Elementary School Children's Perceptions of Classroom Peer Climate and School Adjustment.

Although prior research has indicated that peer norms for aggression enhance the spread of aggression in classrooms, it is unclear to date how these norms relate to students' classroom climate perceptions and school adjustment. Aggressive descriptive norms reflect the average aggression of all students in classrooms, whereas aggressive popularity norms represent the extent to which aggressive behavior relates to popularity among peers. This study examined the role of aggressive descriptive and popularity norms in the classroom climate perceptions (cooperation, conflict, cohesion, isolation) and school adjustment (feelings of belonging; social, academic, and general self-esteem) of popular, well-liked, and victimized children. Self-reported and peer-nominated data were obtained from 1511 children (Mage = 10.60 years, SD = 0.50; 47.2% girls) from 58 fifth-grade classrooms. The results indicated that aggressive descriptive and popularity norms both matter in elementary school, but in diverging ways. Specifically, aggressive descriptive norms-rather than popularity norms-contributed to negative classroom climate perceptions irrespective of students' social position. In addition, whereas descriptive norms contributed to between-classroom variations in some aspects of school adjustment, aggressive popularity norms related to increased school maladjustment for popular and victimized children specifically. Thus, aggressive descriptive norms and popularity norms matter in complementary ways for children's classroom climate perceptions and adjustment in elementary education.

A Longitudinal Social Network Perspective on Adolescents' Exposure to Violent Video Games and Aggression.

Adolescents play video games as a social leisure activity, yet it is unclear whether peer influences play a role in spreading violent video game exposure (VVE) and aggression. It has been suggested that adolescents' aggression increases because of their friend's exposure to violent video games. This study tests this suggestion by using longitudinal social network analyses to investigate selection and socialization of aggression owing to VVE. A total of 796 adolescents from 34 different classrooms were followed from grade 7 to grade 8 (Mage = 12.60 years, 51 percent male adolescents). Exposure to violent video games, physical aggression, and within-classroom friendships were assessed at both time points. Data were analyzed by means of stochastic actor-based modeling in RSiena to estimate the effects of VVE and aggressive behavior on changes in friendships (selection), and the effects of friendships on changes in participants' VVE and aggressive behavior (socialization). Results showed homotypic selection effects, that is, adolescents became friends with peers who were similar in aggression and similar in violent video game exposure. Furthermore, there was a homotypic socialization effect, as friends became more similar in aggression over time. Friends did not become more similar in VVE over time. Violent games played by friends did not increase adolescents' own aggressive behavior. This suggests that concerns about peer influences on violent video games are unwarranted. Future studies on socialization processes of VVE should focus on influences from closest friends and investigate behavior during actual play.

Spotting Loneliness at School: Associations between Self-Reports and Teacher and Peer Nominations.

In two independent studies, we aimed to examine the extent to which teacher and peer nominations of loneliness are associated with children's and adolescents' self-reported loneliness, respectively. Additionally, we examined whether loneliness nominations from teachers and peers were informative above and beyond peer status and social behaviors associated with loneliness. In Study 1 (N = 1594, Mage = 9.43 years), teacher nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with children's self-reported loneliness as assessed using the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire (LSDQ). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that teacher nominations of loneliness predicted children's self-reported loneliness above and beyond teacher nominations of peer status and social behaviors. In Study 2 (N = 350, Mage = 13.81 years), peer nominations of loneliness showed a small to moderate correlation with adolescents' self-reported loneliness as assessed using the peer-related loneliness subscale of the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LACA). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis showed that peer nominations of loneliness predicted adolescents' self-reported loneliness above and beyond peer nominations of peer status and social behaviors. We conclude that loneliness nominations are valuable, but caution is needed when they are used exclusively to identify lonely children and adolescents.

Bidirectional Associations between Popularity, Popularity Goal, and Aggression, Alcohol Use and Prosocial Behaviors in Adolescence: A 3-Year Prospective Longitudinal Study.

Adolescents' popularity and popularity goal have been shown to be related to their aggression and alcohol use. As intervention efforts increasingly aim to focus on prosocial alternatives for youth to gain status, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of how popularity and popularity goal are associated with aggression and substance use as well as prosocial behaviors over time. The current study examined the bidirectional associations of aggression (overt and relational aggression), alcohol use, and prosocial behavior with popularity and popularity goal in adolescence across 3 years using cross-lagged panel analyses. Participants were 839 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 13.36, SD = 0.98; 51.3% girls). The results indicated that popularity was consistently positively associated with popularity goal, but popularity goal did not significantly predict subsequent popularity. Popularity positively predicted elevated aggression and alcohol use, but lower levels of prosocial behavior. For the full sample, alcohol use and overt aggression in grade 7 both predicted subsequent popularity in grade 8. However, when considering gender differences, overt aggression no longer was a significant predictor of popularity. These results were discussed in terms of the dynamic interplay between popularity, popularity goal, and behaviors, and in terms of implications for prevention and intervention efforts.