Intranasal bacteria induce Th1 but not Treg or Th2.

Commensal microorganisms colonize the nasal mucosa without inducing inflammation. Pathogens perturbing the commensal flora often invade evading immune defenses. The different types of adaptive responses that drive the distinct behaviors of commensals and pathogens, allowing one to persist at mucosal surfaces and the other to survive within tissues, are not yet clear. In the present work we demonstrate that although crossing epithelial barriers, the commensal Lactobacillus murinus stimulates epitope-specific CD4(+) T cells in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) less efficiently than the pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes. In NALT antigen-presenting cells other than CCR6(+) CD11c(+) dendritic cells process and present the microbial antigens. Effector/memory CD4(+) T cells generated after intranasal priming with L. murinus and S. pyogenes surprisingly express similar proinflammatory cytokines and are not CD25+/FoxP3+ T-regulatory cells when recirculating in the spleen. These findings suggest that when a commensal crosses the nasal epithelial barrier it induces a proinflammatory response similar to a pathogen but without causing disease.

Genetic dissection of the Streptococcus pyogenes M1 protein: regions involved in fibronectin binding and intracellular invasion.

Entry of serotype M1 Streptococcus pyogenes into host cells depends on binding of the host glycoprotein fibronectin (Fn) by the bacterial M1 protein. The present study was undertaken to localize the Fn binding region in M1 and assess other potential functions of M1. A set of recombinant M1 protein fragments were assayed for their capacities to bind Fn and inhibit ingestion of streptococci by epithelial cells. M1 protein, M6 protein and internally-deleted derivatives of M1 were expressed on the surface of Lactococcus lactis. Lactococci that expressed M1 or M6 protein bound Fn and were efficiently taken up by epithelial cells. Deletion of both the N-terminal A and B repeats regions of M1 abrogated Fn binding and intracellular invasion. Deletion of either the A domain (M1DeltaA) or B repeats (M1DeltaB) significantly reduced, but did not completely eliminate, Fn binding indicating that M1 protein may possess two independent Fn binding sites. Fn binding by the M1DeltaA or M1DeltaB proteins was insufficient for efficient invasion, however, suggesting that M protein binding alters the structure of Fn that, in turn, affects the interaction between Fn and epithelial cells. Although expression of M1, M6 or M1DeltaB proteins led to aggregation of lactococcal cells, aggregation did not significantly contribute to invasion efficiency.

Characterization of the streptococcal C5a peptidase using a C5a-green fluorescent protein fusion protein substrate.

A glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-C5a-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein was designed for use as a substrate for the streptococcal C5a peptidase (SCPA). The substrate was immobilized on a glutathione-Sepharose affinity matrix and used to measure wild-type SCPA activity in the range of 0.8 to 800 nM. The results of the assay demonstrated that SCPA is highly heat stable and has optimal activity on the synthetic substrate at or above pH 8.0. SCPA activity was unaffected by 0.1 to 10 mM Ca(2+), Mg(2+), and Mn(2+) but was inhibited by the same concentrations of Zn(2+). The assay shows high sensitivity to ionic strength; NaCl inhibits SCPA cleavage of GST-C5a-GFP in a dose-dependent manner. Based on previously published computer homology modeling, four substitutions were introduced into the putative active site of SCPA: Asp(130)-Ala, His(193)-Ala, Asn(295)-Ala, and Ser(512)-Ala. All four mutant proteins had over 1,000-fold less proteolytic activity on C5a in vitro, as determined both by the GFP assay described here and by a polymorphonuclear cell adherence assay. In addition, recombinant SCPA1 and SCPA49, from two distinct lineages of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococci), and recombinant SCPB, from Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococci), were compared in the GFP assay. The three enzymes had similar activities, all cleaving approximately 6 mol of C5a mmol of SCP(-1) liter(-1) min(-1).

A nonpeptide integrin antagonist can inhibit epithelial cell ingestion of Streptococcus pyogenes by blocking formation of integrin alpha 5beta 1-fibronectin-M1 protein complexes.

Streptococcus pyogenes can be efficiently internalized by a variety of human epithelial cells. beta-lactam antibiotics, commonly used to treat S. pyogenes infections, do not readily permeate mammalian cells. There is growing evidence that the ability of streptococci to enter host cells contributes to the frequent failure of antibiotics to eradicate the organism from infected individuals. Recent studies have suggested that host cell entry requires the formation of a complex of a bacterial fibronectin (Fn) binding protein (e.g., M1 protein or protein F1/SfbI), human Fn, and the epithelial cell Fn receptor, integrin alpha5beta1. We report here that a low molecular weight, nonpeptide antagonist of integrin alpha5beta1, SJ755, can inhibit internalization of streptococci by primary human tonsillar epithelial cells and immortalized human epithelial (A549) cells, thus increasing the extent of bacterial killing by antibiotics. SJ755 blocked Fn binding by human tonsillar epithelial and A549 cells, suggesting that integrin alpha5beta1 is the major Fn receptor expressed by both cell types. SJ755 did not affect Fn binding by purified M1 protein or M1(+) bacteria. Purified M1 protein failed to associate with integrin alpha5beta1 unless the integrin had been prebound by Fn. Also, SJ755 blocked formation of alpha5beta1-Fn-M1 complexes in vitro. These results support the previous proposal that Fn functions as a molecular bridge between M1 protein and integrin alpha5beta1. Furthermore, these results suggest that integrin antagonists may enhance the efficacy of antibiotics in treatment of S. pyogenes infections.

High-frequency intracellular invasion of epithelial cells by serotype M1 group A streptococci: M1 protein-mediated invasion and cytoskeletal rearrangements.

A clonal variant of serotype M1 group A streptococcus (designated M1inv+) has been linked to severe and invasive infections, including sepsis, necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock. High frequency internalization of cultured epithelial cells by the M1inv+ strain 90-226 is dependent upon the M1 protein. Invasion of HeLa cells was blocked by an anti-M1 antibody, invasion by an M1- strain (90-226 emm1::km) was greatly reduced, and latex beads bound to M1 protein were readily internalized by HeLa cells. Beads coated with a truncated M1 protein were internalized far less frequently. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that streptococci invade by a zipper-like mechanism, that may be mediated by interactions with host cell microvilli. Initially, internalized streptococci and streptococci undergoing endocytosis are associated with polymerized actin. Later in the internalization process, streptococcal-containing vacuoles are associated with the lysosomal membrane glycoprotein, LAMP-1.

A globally disseminated M1 subclone of group A streptococci differs from other subclones by 70 kilobases of prophage DNA and capacity for high-frequency intracellular invasion.

The M1inv+ subclone of M1 group A streptococci that spread globally in the late 1980s and early 1990s was previously identified by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), M protein, and SpeA exotoxin sequence analyses. Strains representing this subclone were characterized with regard to carriage of bacteriophage and capacity to invade cultured human epithelial cells. The M1inv+ subclone was found to harbor two entirely different prophages, phage T13 and phage T14, which together supplement its genome with nearly 70 kb of DNA. Phage T14 encodes the SpeA exotoxin and is closely related to the classic converting phage T12. Plaque-forming characteristics and RFLP analyses of phages T13 and T14 were compared to each other and to phage T12. Other subclones of M1, isolated in the 1970s to the early 1980s, lacked both prophages. The M1inv+ subclone was previously reported to be efficiently internalized by human epithelial cells. This potential was confirmed and expanded by comparing a variety of clinical isolates. The capacity for high-frequency invasion of epithelial cells was not transmitted to a laboratory strain of group A streptococci by the above-mentioned bacteriophages.

Streptococcus pyogenes serotype M1 encodes multiple pathways for entry into human epithelial cells.

The ability of a serotype M1 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes to efficiently invade A549 human lung epithelial cells was previously shown to be dependent on bacterial exposure to human or bovine serum proteins or synthetic peptides containing the sequence RGD. In this study, stimulation by invasion agonists was determined to be dependent on expression of the streptococcal cell surface protein, M1. Fetal bovine serum (FBS), fibronectin (Fn), the extracellular matrix protein laminin (Lm), and RGD-containing peptides were tested for their abilities to promote epithelial cell invasion and adherence by isogenic M1(+) and M1(-) strains of S. pyogenes. In the absence of an agonist, invasion and adherence were comparable for the two bacterial strains. FBS, Fn, and Lm stimulated invasion of the M1(+) strain as much as 70-fold but failed to significantly affect invasion by the M1(-) mutant. Adherence of the wild-type strain was stimulated by these same agonists. Epithelial cell adherence by the M1(-) strain, however, was unaffected by the presence of Fn or Lm. Several RGD-containing peptides were found to promote invasion independently of M1 expression. Binding of 125I-Fn was reduced 88% by the M1(-) mutation and Fn was found to bind purified M1 protein, suggesting that Fn mediates invasion by direct binding to M1. To determine if host integrins might be involved in internalization of streptococci, several anti-integrin monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were tested for their abilities to inhibit invasion. Antibody directed against integrin beta1 inhibited FBS-, Fn-, and Lm-mediated invasion but did not abrogate RGD-peptide-stimulated invasion. MAb directed against the epithelial cell Fn receptor, integrin alpha5beta1, inhibited Fn and FBS-mediated invasion but did not specifically inhibit Lm-mediated invasion. These results indicate that S. pyogenes has evolved multiple mechanisms for invasion of eukaryotic cells, at least two of which involve interactions between M1 protein, host integrins, and integrin ligands.

Why have group A streptococci remained susceptible to penicillin? Report on a symposium.

In spite of 50 years of extensive use of penicillin, group A streptococci remain exquisitely susceptible to this antibiotic. This observation that continuing susceptibility has occurred despite the development of resistance to other antimicrobial agents prompted a day-long meeting at Rockefeller University (New York) in October 1996. Among the most likely explanations for this remarkable state of continued susceptibility to penicillin are that beta-lactamase may not be expressed or may be toxic to the organism and/or that low-affinity penicillin-binding proteins either are not expressed or render organisms nonviable. Other potential explanations are that circumstances favorable for the development of resistance have not yet occurred and/or that there are inefficient mechanisms for or barriers to genetic transfer. Recommended future actions include (1) additional laboratory investigations of gene transfer, penicillin-binding proteins, virulence factors, and homeologous recombination and mismatch repair; (2) increased surveillance for the development of penicillin resistance; (3) application of bioinformatics to analyze streptococcal genome sequences; and (4) development of vaccines and novel antimicrobial agents. Thus far the susceptibility of group A streptococci to penicillin has not been a major clinical or epidemiological problem. A similar observation, however, could have been made decades ago about Streptococcus pneumoniae. It is therefore vital for the scientific community to closely examine why penicillin has remained uniformly highly active against group A streptococci in order to maintain this desirable state.

High-frequency intracellular infection and erythrogenic toxin A expression undergo phase variation in M1 group A streptococci.

A clonal variant of serotype M1 group A streptococcus, strain 90-131, disseminated to several continents, where it was associated with severe systemic infections and toxic shock. Although this strain harbours the speA gene and is efficiently internalized by human epithelial cells, clinical isolates often fail to express the erythrogenic toxin under laboratory growth conditions. Cultures of strain 90-131 were observed to phase vary between small, dry, compact and larger, more mucoid colonies. The former were shown to be poorly internalized by epithelial cells. Analysis of RNA by Northern hybridization demonstrated that the emml, hasA and speA genes were weakly transcribed in cultures derived from the small colonies and highly transcribed in those derived from the large colonies. An insertion mutation in mga (the multigene activator) downregulated the invasion of epithelial cells and the transcription of emm1 and hasA, but had little impact on the transcription of speA. These are the first data to suggest the existence of a common regulatory circuit linking intracellular invasion, M protein, hyaluronic acid capsule and erythrogenic toxin expression by group A streptococcus. Moreover, the genetic instability of toxin expression exhibited by this serotype may impact on laboratory studies that attempt to associate toxin production with toxic shock.

Transcriptional analysis of mga, a regulatory gene in Streptococcus pyogenes: identification of monocistronic and bicistronic transcripts that phase vary.

Transcription of several surface virulence proteins of Streptococcus pyogenes is regulated by Mga, a protein that shows homology to response regulators of two-component signal-transducing systems. Two of these surface virulence proteins, M protein and C5a peptidase, undergo phase variation. To determine whether Mga itself undergoes phase variation and might allow the phasing switch to coordinate the activity of these genes, expression of the mga gene was analyzed. We show for the first time that there are two mga-specific transcripts: a 3.8-kb bicistronic message that includes both mga and emm12 genes and a monocistronic 1.6-kb mga message. Both transcripts phase vary and are present in higher amounts in M+ variants than in M- variants. Incubation of RNA with rifampicin indicates that the smaller 1.6-kb message is not a processed product. Two promoters were mapped upstream of mga: P1 at position 666 (-395) and P2 at position 978 (-83). In strain CS46 (delta mga), transcription initiation from the P1 promoter does not occur, and multiple start sites are found around the P2 promoter. Complementation experiments indicate that sequences upstream of the P2 promoter are required for activation of emm12 and scpA by Mga in trans.

High-frequency invasion of epithelial cells by Streptococcus pyogenes can be activated by fibrinogen and peptides containing the sequence RGD.

The ability of Streptococcus pyogenes to invade human epithelial cells has been suggested to be an important contributing factor to the bacterium's ability to cause severe, invasive infections. We know little, however, of the mechanism underlying intracellular invasion by this organism. In this study, we demonstrate that the invasion of cultured human epithelial cells by a serotype M1 strain of S. pyogenes (strain 90-226) is stimulated over 50-fold by the addition of fetal calf serum (FCS) to the cell culture medium (RPMI medium). Purified human fibrinogen and peptides containing the sequence Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) were also found to promote bacterial invasion of cultured cells. Experiments that demonstrate that the agonists stimulate invasion by interacting with bacterial cells are described. Invasion stimulation did not appear to involve de novo synthesis of a bacterial protein, as FCS and fibrinogen stimulated invasion in the presence of chloramphenicol. Although the agonists stimulated adherence by up to threefold, strain 90-226 efficiently adhered to cultured cells in unsupplemented RPMI medium. The invasion index (the number of internalized CFU/the number of adherent CFU) of strain 90-226 was increased 10- to 25-fold by the addition of the agonists. Postinternalization survival of bacteria was unaffected by fibrinogen or FCS. Thus, the agonistic factors affect the efficiency by which adherent bacteria are internalized by epithelial cells.

Intranasal immunization with C5a peptidase prevents nasopharyngeal colonization of mice by the group A Streptococcus.

Early inflammatory events are initiated by phased production of C5a and interleukin-8 in tissue. Most serotypes of group A streptococci express a surface-bound peptidase (SCPA) which specifically cleaves mouse and human C5a chemotaxins. This study investigates the impact of SCPA on colonization of the nasopharyngeal mucosa of mice and evaluates its potential to induce protective immunity. Two strains, serotypes M6 and M49, which contain insertion and deletion mutations in the SCPA gene (scpA) and represent the two major subdivisions of group A streptococci, were characterized and compared in a mouse intranasal infection model. In this model, SCPA mutants were more rapidly cleared from the nasopharynges of inoculated mice compared with wild-type strains. A 2,908-bp fragment of scpA49 gene, obtained by PCR, was ligated to the expression vector pGEX-4T-1 and expressed in Escherichia coli. The affinity-purified deltaSCPA49 protein proved to be highly immunogenic in mice and rabbits. Although the purified deltaSCPA49 immunogen lacked enzymatic activity, it induced high titers of rabbit antibodies which were able to neutralize peptidase activity associated with M1, M6, M12, and M49 streptococci in vitro. This result confirmed that antipeptidase antibodies lack serotype specificity. Intranasal immunization of mice with the deleted form of the SCPA49 protein stimulated significant levels of specific salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA) and serum IgG antibodies and reduced the potential of wild-type M1, M2, M6, M11, and M49 streptococci to colonize. These experiments suggest a new approach to vaccine development for prevention of streptococcal pharyngitis.

Group A and group B streptococcal vaccine development. A round table presentation.

The data presented above provide a broad overview of ongoing work to develop vaccines against group A and group B streptococcal infections. The encouraging results of human trials with conjugate group B polysaccharide vaccines suggest that this approach will lead to a safe and effective method for preventing these devastating infections in newborn infants. The results of preclinical studies of the various strategies to develop group A streptococcal vaccines are also encouraging. Whether one approach will be more advantageous or efficacious than another will need to await clinical trials. Nevertheless, we predict that in the next decade we will make significant strides in preventing streptococcal infections and their complications.

Conservation of the C5a peptidase genes in group A and B streptococci.

The chromosome of group B streptococci (GBS) contains a gene which is related to the C5a peptidase gene (scpA) of group A streptococci (GAS). scpA encodes a surface-associated peptidase (group A streptococcal C5a peptidase [SCPA]) which specifically cleaves C5a, a major chemoattractant generated in serum by activation of complement. The entire scpA-like gene (scpB) was cloned from a GBS strain and sequenced. The gene encodes an open reading frame of 3,450 bp, which corresponds to a deduced protein (SCPB) of 1,150 amino acids with a molecular weight of 126,237 Da. Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of SCPB were found to be highly homologous to those of SCPAs from GAS. Unexpectedly, scpA12 is more similar to scpB than to another GAS gene, scpA49. The sequence 5' of the open reading frame, including transcription start and a termination site in the signal sequence, is also similar to that of scpA, although less conserved than the coding sequences. The near identity of GBS and GAS peptidases is consistent with horizontal transmission of the scp gene between these species. Recombinant SCPB was expressed in Escherichia coli by using the expression vector plasmid pGEX-4T-1 and was shown to be identical in size to the enzyme extracted from the parental GBS strain 78-471.

C5a peptidase alters clearance and trafficking of group A streptococci by infected mice.

Group A streptococcal C5a peptidase (SCPA) specifically cleaves the human serum chemotaxin C5a at the polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) binding site. This study tested the proposal that SCPA contributes to virulence by retarding the influx of inflammatory cells and clearance of streptococci during the first few hours after infection. To investigate the specific contribution of SCPA to the virulence of group A streptococci, scpA insertion and deletion mutants were created by directed plasmid insertion into scpA and gene replacement. The precise locations of insertion and deletion mutations were confirmed by PCR and DNA sequence analysis. The impact of mutation on virulence was investigated with a mouse air sac model of inflammation. Experiments evaluated clearance of streptococci from the air sac within 4 h after infection. SCPA- streptococci were cleared more efficiently than wild-type bacteria. Localization of streptococci in lymph nodes and spleens of infected mice revealed a significant difference between mutant and wild-type streptococci. PMNLs and other granulocytes that infiltrated the air sac were quantitated by single-color flow cytometry. The total cellular infiltrate was greater and PMNLs dominated the granulocytic infiltrates of air sacs inoculated with SCPA- mutant bacteria. The data obtained are consistent with the possibility that SCPA- streptococci are initially cleared from the site of infection primarily by PMNLs. Moreover, mutant and wild-type streptococci followed different paths of dissemination. SCPA- bacteria were transported to lymph nodes, whereas wild-type streptococci avoided transport to the lymph nodes and rapidly spread to the spleen.

Differential expression of genes in the vir regulon of Streptococcus pyogenes is controlled by transcription termination.

Streptococcal C5a peptidase (SCP), encoded by scpA in Streptococcus pyogenes, is a surface molecule which is able to cleave and inactivate the chemotactic factor C5a. The scpA gene is part of the vir regulon and subject to positive regulation by the Mga protein. It is down-regulated compared to another Mga-activated gene, emm. A chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter gene was used to measure scpA promoter activity. Previous work had shown that when a large portion of the scpA promoter region was deleted, expression of CAT increased relative to the wild-type. This deleted region was found to contain an inverted repeat. In this study we show that the inverted repeat in the leader mRNA is the site of transcription termination, which down-regulates expression of scpA. This is a novel mechanism for regulation of gene expression in S. pyogenes. A specific deletion of the inverted repeat in the scpA promoter-CAT reporter construct was made using inverse PCR. Expression was measured from single-copy chromosomal integrants. When the inverted repeat was deleted, expression increased. Furthermore, Northern hybridization confirmed the existence of a truncated transcript, consistent with a transcription termination mechanism.

Insertional inactivation of virR in Streptococcus pyogenes M49 demonstrates that VirR functions as a positive regulator of ScpA, FcRA, OF, and M protein.

Several reports have shown that Streptococcus pyogenes strains which produce opacity factor (OF+) have diverged significantly from OF- serotypes. This study questions whether several surface proteins of an OF+ culture are regulated by the positive regulatory protein VirR, in a manner similar to OF- strains. Interruption of the virR region of an OF+ S. pyogenes (strain CS101, M type 49) was performed using a temperature-sensitive plasmid containing a fragment of virR. Interruption of the virR region produced cultures with undetectable amounts of M49 and ScpA proteins, and reduced the yield of FcRA protein. In addition, mutants had a significant reduction in detectable opacity factor. These results suggest that virR functions as a positive regulator of a variety of surface proteins in OF+ strains.