Brain size predicts bees' tolerance to urban environments.

The rapid conversion of natural habitats to anthropogenic landscapes is threatening insect pollinators worldwide, raising concern regarding the negative consequences on their fundamental role as plant pollinators. However, not all pollinators are negatively affected by habitat conversion, as certain species find appropriate resources in anthropogenic landscapes to persist and proliferate. The reason why some species tolerate anthropogenic environments while most find them inhospitable remains poorly understood. The cognitive buffer hypothesis, widely supported in vertebrates but untested in insects, offers a potential explanation. This theory suggests that species with larger brains have enhanced behavioural plasticity, enabling them to confront and adapt to novel challenges. To investigate this hypothesis in insects, we measured brain size for 89 bee species, and evaluated their association with the degree of habitat occupancy. Our analyses revealed that bee species mainly found in urban habitats had larger brains relative to their body size than those that tend to occur in forested or agricultural habitats. Additionally, urban bees exhibited larger body sizes and, consequently, larger absolute brain sizes. Our results provide the first empirical support for the cognitive buffer hypothesis in invertebrates, suggesting that a large brain in bees could confer behavioural advantages to tolerate urban environments.

Brain size predicts learning abilities in bees.

When it comes to the brain, bigger is generally considered better in terms of cognitive performance. While this notion is supported by studies of birds and primates showing that larger brains improve learning capacity, similar evidence is surprisingly lacking for invertebrates. Although the brain of invertebrates is smaller and simpler than that of vertebrates, recent work in insects has revealed enormous variation in size across species. Here, we ask whether bee species that have larger brains also have higher learning abilities. We conducted an experiment in which field-collected individuals had to associate an unconditioned stimulus (sucrose) with a conditioned stimulus (coloured strip). We found that most species can learn to associate a colour with a reward, yet some do so better than others. These differences in learning were related to brain size: species with larger brains-both absolute and relative to body size-exhibited enhanced performance to learn the reward-colour association. Our finding highlights the functional significance of brain size in insects, filling a major gap in our understanding of brain evolution and opening new opportunities for future research.

Innovation in solitary bees is driven by exploration, shyness and activity levels.

Behavioural innovation and problem solving are widely considered to be important mechanisms by which animals respond to novel environmental challenges, including those induced by human activities. Despite their functional and ecological relevance, much of our current understanding of these processes comes from studies in vertebrates. Understanding of these processes in invertebrates has lagged behind partly because they are not perceived to have the cognitive machinery required. This perception is, however, challenged by recent evidence demonstrating sophisticated cognitive capabilities in insects despite their small brains. Here, we studied innovation, defined as the capacity to solve a new task, of a solitary bee (Osmia cornuta) in the laboratory by exposing naive individuals to an obstacle removal task. We also studied the underlying cognitive and non-cognitive mechanisms through a battery of experimental tests designed to measure associative learning, exploration, shyness and activity levels. We found that solitary bees can innovate, with 11 of 29 individuals (38%) being able to solve a new task consisting of lifting a lid to reach a reward. However, the propensity to innovate was uncorrelated with the measured learning capacity, but increased with exploration, boldness and activity. These results provide solid evidence that non-social insects can solve new tasks, and highlight the importance of interpreting innovation in the light of non-cognitive processes.

Feeding specialization and longer generation time are associated with relatively larger brains in bees.

Despite their miniature brains, insects exhibit substantial variation in brain size. Although the functional significance of this variation is increasingly recognized, research on whether differences in insect brain sizes are mainly the result of constraints or selective pressures has hardly been performed. Here, we address this gap by combining prospective and retrospective phylogenetic-based analyses of brain size for a major insect group, bees (superfamily Apoidea). Using a brain dataset of 93 species from North America and Europe, we found that body size was the single best predictor of brain size in bees. However, the analyses also revealed that substantial variation in brain size remained even when adjusting for body size. We consequently asked whether such variation in relative brain size might be explained by adaptive hypotheses. We found that ecologically specialized species with single generations have larger brains-relative to their body size-than generalist or multi-generation species, but we did not find an effect of sociality on relative brain size. Phylogenetic reconstruction further supported the existence of different adaptive optima for relative brain size in lineages differing in feeding specialization and reproductive strategy. Our findings shed new light on the evolution of the insect brain, highlighting the importance of ecological pressures over social factors and suggesting that these pressures are different from those previously found to influence brain evolution in other taxa.

Endarterectomía carotídea en el Hospital American British Cowdray / Carotid Endarterectomy at the American British Cowdray Hospital

De junio de 1988 a septiembre de 1996 en el Hospital ABC, 28 pacientes (16 femeninos y 12 masculinos), con edad promedio de 68.39 años, requirieron de 33 endarterectomías carotídeas. Sus factores de riesgo incluían: hipertensión arterial 21 pacientes (75 por ciento), tabaquismo 15 (53.57 por ciento), cardiopatía isquémica 13 (46.42 por ciento), neuropatía siete (25 por ciento) y diabetes mellitus cinco (17.85 por ciento). Fueron 17 andarterectomías izquierdas y 16 derechas; 27 por estenosis sintomática y seis asintomáticas. Los principales síntomas fueron: ataques de isquemia cerebral transitoria en el 62.96 por ciento, infarto cerebral previo 18.51 por ciento y amaurosis fugaz 18.51 por ciento. El porcentaje promedio de estenosis en las lesiones sintomáticas fue del 86.47 por ciento y en las asintomáticas del 82 por ciento. Todos los pacientes fueron operados bajo anestesia general endotraqueal, con protección cerebral farmacológica, monitorización electroencefalográfica y de potenciales evocados somatosensoriales. Nueve pacientes (27.27 por ciento) requirieron la colocación de una derivación intraluminal transoperatoria. El tiempo promedio de pinzamiento carotídeo fue en los pacientes sin derivación 39.1 minutos y con derivación cuatro minutos. Cuatro casos (12.12 por ciento), todos del sexo femenino, requirieron arteriorrafia con parche: dos con PTFE, uno con Dacrón, y uno con vena safena. El tiempo promedio de cirugía fue de dos horas 15 minutos. Mortalidad operatoria un caso (3.03 por ciento) por fibrilación ventricular secundaria o infarto agudo del miocardio. Morbilidad neurológica central 0 por ciento. Morbilidad neurológica periférica un caso (3.03 por ciento) por lesión neuropráxica del recurrente laríngeo con recuperación completa. Morbilidad no neurológica en ocho casos (24.24 por ciento): HTA postoperatoria en cuatro, hipotensión arterial postoperatoria en tres e IAM en uno. El tiempo promedio de estancia hospitalaria fue de 3.65 días. Conclusiones. Los resultados de esta serie de endarterectomías carotídeas con pacientes cuya edad promedio fue la 7a. década de la vida, donde el 60 por ciento tenían una clasificación ASA III, muestran baja mortalidad operatoria (3.03 por ciento) y nula morbilidad neurológica central