A review of the safety evidence on recombinant human lactoferrin for use as a food ingredient.

Published studies on the glycosylation, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and safety outcomes of orally ingested recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF) were reviewed in the context of unanswered safety questions, including alloimmunization, allergenicity, and immunotoxicity potential of rhLF during repeated exposure. The primary objective was to summarize current safety data of rhLF produced in transgenic host expression systems. Overall, results from animal and human studies showed that rhLF was well tolerated and safe. Animal data showed no significant toxicity-related outcomes among any safety or tolerability endpoints. The no observed adverse effect levels (NOAEL) were at the highest level tested in both iron-desaturated and -saturated forms of rhLF. Although one study reported outcomes of rhLF on immune parameters, no animal studies directly assessed immunogenicity or immunotoxicity from a safety perspective. Data from human studies were primarily reported as adverse events (AE). They showed no or fewer rhLF-related AE compared to control and no evidence of toxicity, dose-limiting toxicities, or changes in iron status in various subpopulations. However, no human studies evaluated the immunomodulatory potential of rhLF as a measure of safety. Following this review, a roadmap outlining preclinical and clinical studies with relevant safety endpoints was developed to address the unanswered safety questions.

Weighted analysis of 2'-fucosyllactose, 3-fucosyllactose, lacto-N-tetraose, 3'-sialyllactose, and 6'-sialyllactose concentrations in human milk.

Over 150 human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have been identified and their concentrations in human milk vary depending on Secretor and Lewis blood group status, environmental and geographical factors, lactation stage, gestational period, and maternal health. Quantitation of HMOs in human milk has been the focus of numerous studies, however, comprehensive and weighted statistical analyses of their levels in human milk are lacking. Therefore, weighted means, standard deviations, medians, interquartile ranges, and 90th percentiles for 2'-fucosyllactose (2'-FL), 3-fucosyllactose (3-FL), lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), 3'-sialyllactose (3'-SL) and 6'-sialyllactose (6'-SL) were calculated using random sampling and the levels of these HMOs in human milk reported in the literature. Probability distributions of the reported levels were also constructed. Although the levels reported in the published studies varied, the weighted means for 2'-FL, 3-FL, LNT, 3'-SL, and 6'-SL were calculated to be 2.58, 0.57, 0.94, 0.28, and 0.39 g/L, respectively, which are consistent with those that have been previously determined in other systematic analyses. Likely due to the use of weighting, the 90th percentiles were greater than the 95% confidence limits that have been previously calculated. Our study therefore provides accurate and important statistical data to help support the level of appropriate HMO supplementation in infant formula.

Safety and Metabolism of Long-term Administration of NIAGEN (Nicotinamide Riboside Chloride) in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-controlled Clinical Trial of Healthy Overweight Adults.

Nicotinamide riboside (NR) is a newly discovered nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) precursor vitamin. A crystal form of NR chloride termed NIAGEN is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for use in foods and the subject of two New Dietary Ingredient Notifications for use in dietary supplements. To evaluate the kinetics and dose-dependency of NR oral availability and safety in overweight, but otherwise healthy men and women, an 8-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted. Consumption of 100, 300 and 1000 mg NR dose-dependently and significantly increased whole blood NAD+ (i.e., 22%, 51% and 142%) and other NAD+ metabolites within 2 weeks. The increases were maintained throughout the remainder of the study. There were no reports of flushing and no significant differences in adverse events between the NR and placebo-treated groups or between groups at different NR doses. NR also did not elevate low density lipoprotein cholesterol or dysregulate 1-carbon metabolism. Together these data support the development of a tolerable upper intake limit for NR based on human data.

Correction: Non-Canonical NF-κB Activation and Abnormal B Cell Accumulation in Mice Expressing Ubiquitin Protein Ligase-Inactive c-IAP2.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000518.].

c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 redundancy differs between T and B cells.

Cellular Inhibitors of Apoptosis 1 and 2 (c-IAP1 and c-IAP2) are ubiquitin protein ligases (E3s) that constitutively ubiquitinate and induce proteasomal-mediated degradation of NF-κB Inducing Kinase (NIK) and repress non-canonical NF-κB activation. Mice expressing an E3-inactive c-IAP2 mutant (c-IAP2(H570A)) have constitutive activation of non-canonical NF-κB, resulting in B cell hyperplasia and T cell costimulation-independence. If, and if so to what extent, c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 are redundant in NF-κB regulation in these mice is not known. Here we have generated mice expressing a mutant c-IAP1 that lacks E3 activity (c-IAP1(H582A)). These mice were phenotypically normal and did not have constitutive NF-κB activation in B cells or MEFs. siRNA-mediated knockdown of c-IAP2 showed that accumulated c-IAP2, resulting from lack of c-IAP1-dependent degradation, compensated for absent c-IAP1 E3 activity. Surprisingly, c-IAP1(H582A) T cells had a lower p100/p52 ratio than wild type T cells, and in the absence of costimulation proliferated to a degree intermediate between wild type and c-IAP2(H570A) T cells. Therefore, although c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 both can repress constitutive NF-κB activation, the relative importance of each varies according to cell type.

Balance between NF-κB p100 and p52 regulates T cell costimulation dependence.

c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 are ubiquitin protein ligases (E3s) that repress noncanonical NF-κB activation. We have created mice that bear a mutation in c-IAP2 that inactivates its E3 activity and interferes, in a dominant-negative fashion, with c-IAP1 E3 activity (c-IAP2(H570A)). The immune response of these animals was explored by infecting them with the Th1-inducing parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Surprisingly, c-IAP2(H570A) mice succumbed because of T cell production of high levels of proinflammatory cytokines. Unlike naive wild-type (WT) cells, which require signals generated by the TCR and costimulatory receptors to become fully activated, naive c-IAP2(H570A) T cells proliferated and produced high levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ to stimulation via TCR alone. c-IAP2(H570A) T cells had constitutive noncanonical NF-κB activation, and IκB kinase inhibition reduced their proliferation to anti-TCR alone to WT levels but had no effect when costimulation via CD28 was provided. Notably, T cells from nfkb2(-/-) mice, which cannot generate the p52 component of noncanonical NF-κB, were also costimulation independent, consistent with the negative role of this unprocessed protein in canonical NF-κB activation. Whereas T cells from nfkb2(+/-) mice behaved like WT, coexpression of a single copy of c-IAP2(H570A) resulted in cleavage of p100, upregulation of p52, and T cell costimulation independence. Thus, p100 represses and p52 promotes costimulation, and the ratio regulates T cell dependence on costimulatory signals.

Macrophage p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity regulates invariant natural killer T-cell responses during Borrelia burgdorferi infection.

The interaction of macrophages with infectious agents leads to the activation of several signaling cascades, including mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, such as p38. We now demonstrate that p38 MAP kinase-mediated responses are critical components to the immune response to Borrelia burgdorferi. The pharmacological and genetic inhibition of p38 MAP kinase activity during infection with the spirochete results in increased carditis. In transgenic mice that express a dominant negative form of p38 MAP kinase specifically in macrophages, production of the invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cell-attracting chemokine MCP-1 and of the antigen-presenting molecule CD1d are significantly reduced. The expression of the transgene therefore results in the deficient infiltration of iNKT cells, their decreased activation, and a diminished production of interferon γ (IFN-γ), leading to increased bacterial burdens and inflammation. These results show that p38 MAP kinase provides critical checkpoints for the protective immune response to the spirochete during infection of the heart.

Non-canonical NF-κB activation and abnormal B cell accumulation in mice expressing ubiquitin protein ligase-inactive c-IAP2.

Chromosomal translocations between loci encoding MALT1 and c-IAP2 are common in MALT lymphomas. The resulting fusion proteins lack the c-IAP2 RING domain, the region responsible for its ubiquitin protein ligase (E3) activity. Ectopic expression of the fusion protein activates the canonical NF-κB signaling cascade, but how it does so is controversial and how it promotes MALT lymphoma is unknown. Considering recent reports implicating c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 E3 activity in repression of non-canonical NF-κB signaling, we asked if the c-IAP2/MALT fusion protein can initiate non-canonical NF-κB activation. Here we show that in addition to canonical activation, the fusion protein stabilizes NIK and activates non-canonical NF-κB. Canonical but not non-canonical activation depended on MALT1 paracaspase activity, and expression of E3-inactive c-IAP2 activated non-canonical NF-κB. Mice in which endogenous c-IAP2 was replaced with an E3-inactive mutant accumulated abnormal B cells with elevated non-canonical NF-κB and had increased numbers of B cells with a marginal zone phenotype, gut-associated lymphoid hyperplasia, and other features of MALT lymphoma. Thus, the c-IAP2/MALT1 fusion protein activates NF-κB by two distinct mechanisms, and loss of c-IAP2 E3 activity in vivo is sufficient to induce abnormalities common to MALT lymphoma.

The CD8+ memory T-cell state of readiness is actively maintained and reversible.

The ability of the adaptive immune system to respond rapidly and robustly upon repeated antigen exposure is known as immunologic memory, and it is thought that acquisition of memory T-cell function is an irreversible differentiation event. In this study, we report that many phenotypic and functional characteristics of antigen-specific CD8 memory T cells are lost when they are deprived of contact with dendritic cells. Under these circumstances, memory T cells reverted from G(1) to the G(0) cell-cycle state and responded to stimulation like naive T cells, as assessed by proliferation, dependence upon costimulation, and interferon-gamma production, without losing cell surface markers associated with memory. The memory state was maintained by signaling via members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, CD27 and 4-1BB. Foxo1, a transcription factor involved in T-cell quiescence, was reduced in memory cells, and stimulation of naive CD8 cells via CD27 caused Foxo1 to be phosphorylated and emigrate from the nucleus in a phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-dependent manner. Consistent with these results, maintenance of G(1) in vivo was compromised in antigen-specific memory T cells in vesicular stomatitis virus-infected CD27-deficient mice. Therefore, sustaining the functional phenotype of T memory cells requires active signaling and maintenance.

Structural basis for recognition of diubiquitins by NEMO.

NEMO is the regulatory subunit of the IkappaB kinase (IKK) in NF-kappaB activation, and its CC2-LZ region interacts with Lys63 (K63)-linked polyubiquitin to recruit IKK to receptor signaling complexes. In vitro, CC2-LZ also interacts with tandem diubiquitin. Here we report the crystal structure of CC2-LZ with two dimeric coiled coils representing CC2 and LZ, respectively. Surprisingly, mutagenesis and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments reveal that the binding sites for diubiquitins at LZ are composites of both chains and that each ubiquitin in diubiquitins interacts with symmetrical NEMO asymmetrically. For tandem diubiquitin, the first ubiquitin uses the conserved hydrophobic patch and the C-terminal tail, while the second ubiquitin uses an adjacent surface patch. For K63-linked diubiquitin, the proximal ubiquitin uses its conserved hydrophobic patch, while the distal ubiquitin mostly employs the C-terminal arm including the K63 linkage residue. These studies uncover the energetics and geometry for mutual recognition of NEMO and diubiquitins.

CARP-2 is an endosome-associated ubiquitin ligase for RIP and regulates TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation.

BACKGROUND: The proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) elicits cellular responses by signaling through a receptor complex that includes the essential adaptor molecule RIP. One important consequence of signaling is activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, and failure to downregulate TNF-induced NF-kappaB transcriptional activity results in chronic inflammation and death. Internalization of the receptor complex plays an important regulatory role in TNF signaling. RESULTS: We report that CARP-2, a RING domain-containing ubiquitin protein ligase (E3), is a negative regulator of TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation. By virtue of its phospholipid-binding FYVE domain, CARP-2 localized to endocytic vesicles, where it interacted with internalized TNF-receptor complex, resulting in RIP ubiquitination and degradation. Knockdown of CARP-2 stabilized TNFR1-associated polyubiquitinated RIP levels after TNF simulation and enhanced activation of NF-kappaB. CONCLUSIONS: CARP-2 acts at the level of endocytic vesicles to limit the intensity of TNF-induced NF-kappaB activation by the regulated elimination of a necessary signaling component within the receptor complex.

Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of IRAK-1 is required for interleukin-1 receptor- and toll-like receptor-mediated NF-kappaB activation.

Stimulation through the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) and some Toll-like receptors (TLRs) induces ubiquitination of TRAF6 and IRAK-1, signaling components required for NF-kappaB and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Here we show that although TRAF6 and IRAK-1 acquired Lys63 (K63)-linked polyubiquitin chains upon IL-1 stimulation, only ubiquitinated IRAK-1 bound NEMO, the regulatory subunit of IkappaB kinase (IKK). The sites of IRAK-1 ubiquitination were mapped to Lys134 and Lys180, and arginine substitution of these residues impaired IL-1R/TLR-mediated IRAK-1 ubiquitination, NEMO binding, and NF-kappaB activation. K63-linked ubiquitination of IRAK-1 required enzymatically active TRAF6, indicating that it is the physiologically relevant E3. Thus, K63-linked polyubiquitination of proximal signaling proteins is a common mechanism used by diverse innate immune receptors for recruiting IKK and activating NF-kappaB.

Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 signaling induces selective c-IAP1-dependent ASK1 ubiquitination and terminates mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling.

TRAF2 and ASK1 play essential roles in tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Stimulation through TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2) leads to TRAF2 ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation. Here we show that TNFR2 signaling also leads to selective ASK1 ubiquitination and degradation in proteasomes. c-IAP1 was identified as the ubiquitin protein ligase for ASK1 ubiquitination, and studies with primary B cells from c-IAP1 knock-out animals revealed that c-IAP1 is required for TNFR2-induced TRAF2 and ASK1 degradation. Moreover, in the absence of c-IAP1 TNFR2-mediated p38 and JNK activation was prolonged. Thus, the ubiquitin protein ligase activity of c-IAP1 is responsible for regulating the duration of TNF signaling in primary cells expressing TNFR2.

Control of Borrelia burgdorferi-specific CD4+-T-cell effector function by interleukin-12- and T-cell receptor-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity.

Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, results in a Th1 response and proinflammatory cytokine production. Mice deficient for MKK3, an upstream activator of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, develop a lower Th1 response and exhibit an impaired ability to produce proinflammatory cytokines upon infection with the spirochete. We investigated the contribution of p38 MAP kinase activity in gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production in CD4+ T cells in response to specific antigen through T-cell receptor (TCR)- and interleukin-12 (IL-12)-mediated signals. The specific inhibition of p38 MAP kinase in T cells and the administration of a pharmacological inhibitor of the kinase during the course of infection with the spirochete resulted in reduced levels of IFN-gamma in the sera of infected mice. Our results also demonstrate that although p38 MAP kinase activity is not required for the differentiation of B. burgdorferi-specific CD4+ T cells, the production of IFN-gamma by Th1 effector cells is regulated by the kinase. Both TCR engagement and IL-12 induced the production of the Th1 cytokine through the activation of the p38 MAP kinase pathway. Thus, the inhibition of this pathway in vitro resulted in decreased levels of IFN-gamma during restimulation of B. burgdorferi-specific T cells in response to anti-CD3 and IL-12 stimulation. These results clarify the specific contribution of the p38 MAP kinase in the overall immune response to the spirochete and its role in the effector function of B. burgdorferi-specific T cells.

Sensing of Lys 63-linked polyubiquitination by NEMO is a key event in NF-kappaB activation [corrected].

The transcription factor NF-kappaB is sequestered in the cytoplasm in a complex with IkappaB. Almost all NF-kappaB activation pathways converge on IkappaB kinase (IKK), which phosphorylates IkappaB resulting in Lys 48-linked polyubiquitination of IkappaB and its degradation. This allows migration of NF-kappaB to the nucleus where it regulates gene expression. IKK has two catalytic subunits, IKKalpha and IKKbeta, and a regulatory subunit, IKKgamma or NEMO. NEMO is essential for NF-kappaB activation, and NEMO dysfunction in humans is the cause of incontinentia pigmenti and hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia and immunodeficiency (HED-ID). The recruitment of IKK to occupied cytokine receptors, and its subsequent activation, are dependent on the attachment of Lys 63-linked polyubiquitin chains to signalling intermediates such as receptor-interacting protein (RIP). Here, we show that NEMO binds to Lys 63- but not Lys 48-linked polyubiquitin, and that single point mutations in NEMO that prevent binding to Lys 63-linked polyubiquitin also abrogates the binding of NEMO to RIP in tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-stimulated cells, the recruitment of IKK to TNF receptor (TNF-R) 1, and the activation of IKK and NF-kappaB. RIP is also destabilized in the absence of NEMO binding and undergoes proteasomal degradation in TNF-alpha-treated cells. These results provide a mechanism for NEMO's critical role in IKK activation, and a key to understanding the link between cytokine-receptor proximal signalling and IKK and NF-kappaB activation.

TNF-alpha induced c-IAP1/TRAF2 complex translocation to a Ubc6-containing compartment and TRAF2 ubiquitination.

Signaling through tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNF-R2) results in ubiquitination of TRAF2 by the E3 c-IAP1. In this report, we confirm that TRAF2 translocates to a Triton X-100 (TX)-insoluble compartment upon TNF-R2 engagement. Moreover, TRAF2 ubiquitination occurs in this compartment, from which TRAF2 is degraded in a proteasome-dependent manner. Confocal microscopy demonstrated that the TX-insoluble compartment is perinuclear and co-localizes with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) markers. The ER transmembrane Ubc6 bound to c-IAP1 and served as a cognate E2 for c-IAP1's E3 activity in vitro. Furthermore, Ubc6 co-localized with translocated TRAF2/c-IAP1 in the ER-associated compartment in vivo, and a catalytically inactive Ubc6 mutant inhibited TNF-alpha-induced, TNF-R2-dependent TRAF2 degradation. These results indicate that upon TNF-R2 signaling, translocation of TRAF2 and c-IAP1 to an ER-associated, Ubc6-containing perinuclear compartment is required for the ubiquitination of TRAF2 by c-IAP1. Therefore, the ER plays a key role in the TNF-R-mediated signal transduction cascade by acting as a site of assembly for E2/E3/substrate complexes.

Posttranscriptional downregulation of c-IAP2 by the ubiquitin protein ligase c-IAP1 in vivo.

Inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 were identified as part of the tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) signaling complex and have been implicated as intermediaries in tumor necrosis factor alpha signaling. Like all RING domain-containing IAPs, c-IAP1 and c-IAP2 have ubiquitin protein ligase (E3) activity. To explore the function of c-IAP1 in a physiologic setting, c-IAP1-deficient mice were generated by homologous gene recombination. These animals are viable and have no obvious sensitization to proapoptotic stimuli. Cells from c-IAP1(-/-) mice do, however, express markedly elevated levels of c-IAP2 protein in the absence of increased c-IAP2 mRNA. In contrast to reports implicating c-IAPs in the activation of NF-kappaB, resting and cytokine-induced NF-kappaB activation was not impaired in c-IAP1-deficient cells. Transient transfection studies with wild-type and E3-defective c-IAP1 revealed that c-IAP2 is a direct target for c-IAP1-mediated ubiquitination and subsequent degradation, which are potentiated by the adaptor function of TRAF2. Thus, the c-IAPs represent a pair of TNFR-associated ubiquitin protein ligases in which one regulates the expression of the other by a posttranscriptional and E3-dependent mechanism.

Salp15, an ixodes scapularis salivary protein, inhibits CD4(+) T cell activation.

Tick saliva has pleiotropic properties that facilitate persistence of the arthropod upon the host. We now describe a feeding-inducible protein in Ixodes scapularis saliva, Salp15, that inhibits CD4(+) T cell activation. The mechanism involves the repression of calcium fluxes triggered by TCR ligation and results in lower production of interleukin-2. Salp15 also inhibits the development of CD4(+) T cell-mediated immune responses in vivo, demonstrating the functional importance of this protein. Salp15 provides a molecular basis for understanding the immunosuppressive activity of I. scapularis saliva and vector-host interactions.

c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK)1 and JNK2 have distinct roles in CD8(+) T cell activation.

The c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway is induced by cytokines and stress stimuli and is implicated in cell death and differentiation, but the specific function of this pathway depends on the cell type. Here we examined the role of JNK1 and JNK2 in CD8(+) T cells. Unlike CD4(+) T cells, the absence of JNK2 causes increased interleukin (IL)-2 production and proliferation of CD8(+) T cells. In contrast, JNK1-deficient CD8(+) T cells are unable to undergo antigen-stimulated expansion in vitro, even in the presence of exogenous IL-2. The hypoproliferation of these cells is associated with impaired IL-2 receptor alpha chain (CD25) gene and cell surface expression. The reduced level of nuclear activating protein 1 (AP-1) complexes in activated JNK1-deficient CD8(+) T cells can account for the impaired IL-2 receptor alpha chain gene expression. Thus, JNK1 and JNK2 play different roles during CD8(+) T cell activation and these roles differ from those in CD4(+) T cells.