Preparing for the Transition to Academic Practice: A Graduate Medical Education Elective.

Background Residents and fellows as educators (RFAE) programs typically focus on clinical teaching skills in single departments, which may not be sustainable for those with limited trainees or faculty. Objective To determine the feasibility and value of a 2-week interdepartmental RFAE elective for advanced teaching skill development and transition to practice as clinician educators. Methods Facilitated discussion, simulation, and critiqued peer presentations developed participants' skills in teaching, curriculum design, professional development, and scholarship. Assessments in this prospective intervention included 2 self-reported surveys addressing: (1) teaching process and motivation (Conceptions of Learning and Teaching [COLT]), and (2) skills and attitudes. We administered both surveys at baseline, immediate-post, and 3-month-post elective with data compared across time points using Kruskal-Wallis tests. Program evaluation comprised daily open-ended surveys on engagement and an end-of-course feedback survey. Results There were 79 participants from 2019 to 2023. Survey response rates were 84.8% (67 of 79) at baseline, 58.2% (46 of 79) immediate-post, and 51.9% (41 of 79) 3-month-post. Most participants were residents (89.9%, 71 of 79), female (60.8%, 48 of 79), from pediatrics and/or medicine departments (77.2%, 61 of 79), and in their final year of training (77.2%, 61 of 79). COLT factor orientation to professional practice scores increased in the immediate-post (3.3) compared to baseline (2.5) surveys (P=.008). Teaching skills attitudes scores increased for all questions in 3-month-post compared to baseline surveys. In open-ended questions, participants emphasized the importance of professional development sessions in guiding their careers toward medical education. Conclusions This interdepartmental elective was feasible, favorably received, and sustained over time, with observed changes in participants' teaching skills attitudes.

Does the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (ACS NSQIP) accurately predict mortality for patients with elevated MELD scores?

BACKGROUND: The Model for End Stage Liver Disease (MELD) predicts mortality for liver disease patients. The American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) estimates mortality risk for surgical patients; however, NSQIP does not collect data regarding liver disease. This study's aim was to examine the accuracy of NSQIP mortality estimates for patients with elevated MELD scores. METHODS: NSQIP participant user files from 2005 to 2016 were queried. MELD scores were calculated and patients with scores ≥10 included. NSQIP-predicted mortality was compared to actual mortality. RESULTS: 268,873 patients met inclusion criteria. Predicted and observed number of 30-day postoperative deaths were 20,644 (7.7%) and 21,764 (8.1%). For patients with MELD ≥24, NSQIP-predicted 30-day mortality underestimated actual mortality. For patients with MELD ≤22, predicted and actual risks were similar. CONCLUSION: NSQIP predicts 30-day mortality risk well for patients with MELD scores from 10 to 22, but underestimates risk for patients with higher MELD scores.

Embodied aspects of learning to be a surgeon.

Embodied learning is an educational concept that has been applied to various aspects of education, but only touched on in medical education, largely in relation to the teaching and learning of anatomy. Thus far, the medical literature has not addressed embodied learning as it specifically relates to learning to operate and be a surgeon. This paper will discuss relevant principles of embodied learning/cognition, ways it is important both for learning to function as a surgeon and for learning to perform technical aspects of surgery, and finally will discuss implications for surgical education. In particular, it will address ways in which embodied learning can and should be incorporated into educational activities specific to surgery.

Abdominal cocoon syndrome: an obstructive adhesiolytic metamorphosis.

Abdominal cocoon syndrome (ACS), also known as idiopathic sclerosing peritonitis and primary sclerosing peritonitis, is a rare condition causing small bowel obstruction first described in 1978 by Foo et al It is characterised by total or partial encasement of the small bowel in a fibrocollagenous cocoon-like sac accompanied by extensive intrinsic small bowel adhesions. While the aetiology of this condition remains largely unknown, ACS can be divided into two subtypes: primary or idiopathic, which is often accompanied by cryptorchidism, and secondary to another cause such as congenital dysplasia or medications. Definitive diagnosis can only be achieved following laparotomy with extensive lysis of adhesions to alleviate the obstruction. However, preoperative diagnosis is possible if clinicians are aware of the condition and its radiologic signs.

Peritoneal encapsulation: a rare cause of small bowel obstruction.

Peritoneal encapsulation syndrome (PES) is a rare cause of small bowel obstruction (SBO) in patients with no prior history of abdominal surgery. First described by Cleland in 1868, PES is a congenital condition characterised by small bowel encasement in an accessory, but otherwise normal peritoneal membrane. 1 2 A result of abnormal rotation of the midgut during early development, the condition causes fibrous encapsulation of the intestines, thus preventing bowel distention.3 While preoperative diagnosis is difficult, several case reports have described clinical and imaging signs that can help clinicians with not only recognising the condition but also preparing appropriately for perioperative discovery of anatomical variants. 3 4.

The adequacy of hepatopancreatobiliary training: How does operative exposure and perceived readiness in fellowship translate into subsequent practice?

SUMMARY: Over the last 3 decades, expansion in the scope and complexity of hepatopancreatobiliary (HPB) surgery has resulted in significant improvements in postoperative outcomes. As a result, the importance of dedicated fellowship training for HPB surgery is now well established, and the definition of formal program requirements has been actively pursued by a collaboration of the 3 distinct accrediting bodies within North America. While major advances have been made in defining minimum case volume requirements, qualitative assessment of the operative experience remains challenging. Our research collaborative (HPB Manpower and Education Study Group) has previously explored the perceived case volume adequacy of core HPB procedures within fellowship programs. We conducted a 1-year follow-up survey targeting the same cohort to investigate the association between operative case volumes and comfort performing HPB procedures within initial independent practice.

Borderline operability in hepatectomy patients is associated with higher rates of failure to rescue after severe complications.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: To understand the influence of age and comorbidities, this study analyzed the incidence and risk factors for post-hepatectomy morbidity/mortality in patients with "borderline" (BL) operability, defined by the preoperative factors: age ≥75 years, dependent function, lung disease, ascites/varices, myocardial infarction, stroke, steroids, weight loss >10%, and/or sepsis. METHODS: All elective hepatectomies were identified in the 2005-2013 ACS-NSQIP database. Predictors of 30-day morbidity/mortality in BL patients were analyzed. RESULTS: A 3,574/15,920 (22.4%) patients met BL criteria. Despite non-BL and BL patients undergoing similar magnitude hepatectomies (P > 0.4), BL patients had higher severe complication (SC, 23.3% vs. 15.3%) and mortality rates (3.7% vs. 1.2%, P < 0.001). BL patients with any SC experienced a 14.1% mortality rate (vs. 7.3%, non-BL, P < 0.001). Independent risk factors for SC in BL patients included American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score >3 (odds ratio, OR - 1.29), smoking (OR - 1.41), albumin <3.5 g/dl (OR - 1.36), bilirubin >1 (OR - 2.21), operative time >240 min (OR - 1.58), additional colorectal procedure (OR - 1.78), and concurrent procedure (OR - 1.73, all P < 0.05). Independent predictors of mortality included disseminated cancer (OR - 0.44), albumin <3.5 g/dl (OR - 1.94), thrombocytopenia (OR - 1.95), and extended/right hepatectomy (OR - 2.81, all P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Hepatectomy patients meeting BL criteria have an overall post-hepatectomy mortality rate that is triple that of non-BL patients. With less clinical reserve, BL patients who suffer SC are at greater risk of post-hepatectomy death. J. Surg. Oncol. 2017;115:337-343. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Marital Status and Survival in Patients with Carcinoid Tumors.

BACKGROUND: Marital status is a known prognostic factor in overall and disease-specific survival in several types of cancer. The impact of marital status on survival in patients with carcinoid tumors remains unknown. We hypothesized that married patients have higher rates of survival than similar unmarried patients with carcinoid tumors. METHODS: Using the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, we identified 23,126 people diagnosed with a carcinoid tumor between 2000 and 2011 and stratified them according to marital status. Univariate and multivariable analyses were performed to compare the characteristics and outcomes between patient cohorts. Overall and cancer-related survival were analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method. Multivariable survival analyses were performed using Cox proportional hazards models (hazards ratio [HR]), controlling for demographics and tumor-related and treatment-related variables. Propensity score analysis was performed to determine surgical intervention distributions among married and unmarried (ie, single, separated, divorced, widowed) patients. RESULTS: Marital status was significantly related to both overall and cancer-related survival in patients with carcinoid tumors. Divorced and widowed patients had worse overall survival (HR, 1.33 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.08-1.33] and 1.34 [95% CI, 1.22-1.46], respectively) and cancer-related survival (HR, 1.15 [95% CI, 1.00-1.31] and 1.15 [95% CI, 1.03-1.29], respectively) than married patients over five years. Single and separated patients had worse overall survival (HR, 1.20 [95% CI, 1.08-1.33] and 1.62 [95% CI, 1.25-2.11], respectively) than married patients over five years, but not worse cancer-related survival. Unmarried patients were more likely than matched married patients to undergo definitive surgical intervention (62.67% vs 53.11%, respectively, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Even after controlling for other prognostic factors, married patients have a survival advantage after diagnosis of any carcinoid tumor, potentially reflecting better social support and financial means than patients without partners.

Is strength training associated with mortality benefits? A 15year cohort study of US older adults.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between strength training (ST) behavior and mortality remains understudied in large, national samples, although smaller studies have observed that greater amounts of muscle strength are associated with lower risks of death. We aimed to understand the association between meeting ST guidelines and future mortality in an older US adult population. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the 1997-2001 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) linked to death certificate data in the National Death Index. The main independent variable was guideline-concordant ST (i.e. twice each week) and dependent variable was all-cause mortality. Covariates identified in the literature and included in our analysis were demographics, past medical history, and other health behaviors (including other physical activity). Given our aim to understand outcomes in older adults, analyses were limited to adults age 65years and older. Multivariate analysis was conducted using multiple logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: During the study period, 9.6% of NHIS adults age 65 and older (N=30,162) reported doing guideline-concordant ST and 31.6% died. Older adults who reported guideline-concordant ST had 46% lower odds of all-cause mortality than those who did not (adjusted odds ratio: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.70; p<0.001). The association between ST and death remained after adjustment for past medical history and health behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Although a minority of older US adults met ST recommendations, guideline-concordant ST is significantly associated with decreased overall mortality. All-cause mortality may be significantly reduced through the identification of and engagement in guideline-concordant ST interventions by older adults.

Costs of hepato-pancreato-biliary surgery and readmissions in privately insured US patients.

BACKGROUND: Surgical costs are influenced by perioperative care, readmissions, and further therapies. We aimed to characterize costs in hepato-pancreato-biliary surgery in the United States. METHODS: The MarketScan database (2008-2010) was used to identify privately insured patients undergoing pancreatectomy (n = 2254) or hepatectomy (n = 1702). Costs associated with the index surgery, readmissions, and total short-term costs were assessed from a third party payer perspective using generalized linear regression models. RESULTS: Mean total costs of pancreatectomy and hepatectomy were $107,600 (95% confidence interval [CI], 101,200-114,000) and $81,300 (95% CI, 77,600-85,000), respectively, with corresponding surgical costs of 69.2% and 60.9%. Ninety-day readmission costs were $36,200 (95% CI, 32,000-40,400) and $34,100 (95% CI, 28,100-40,100), respectively. In multivariate analysis, readmissions were associated with an almost two-fold increase in total costs in both pancreatectomy (cost ratio = 1.98; P < 0.001) and hepatectomy (cost ratio = 1.92; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Hepato-pancreato-biliary surgery is associated with significant economic burden in the privately insured population. Substantial costs are incurred beyond the index surgical admission, with readmissions representing a major source of potentially preventable health care spending. Sustained efforts in defining high-risk populations and decreasing the burden of postoperative complications through a combination of prevention and improved outpatient management offer promising strategies to reduce readmissions and control costs.

Does the use of neoadjuvant therapy for pancreatic adenocarcinoma increase postoperative morbidity and mortality rates?

INTRODUCTION: The impact of neoadjuvant therapy on postpancreatectomy complications is inadequately described. METHODS: Data from the NSQIP Pancreatectomy Demonstration Project (11/2011 to 12/2012) was used to identify patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma who did and did not receive neoadjuvant therapy. Neoadjuvant therapy was classified as chemotherapy alone or radiation ± chemotherapy. Outcomes in the neoadjuvant vs. surgery first groups were compared. RESULTS: Of 1,562 patients identified at 43 hospitals, 199 (12.7%) received neoadjuvant therapy (99 chemotherapy alone and 100 radiation ± chemotherapy). Preoperative biliary stenting (57.9 vs. 44.7%, p = 0.0005), vascular resection (41.5 vs. 17.3%, p < 0.0001), and open resections (94.0 vs. 91.4%, p = 0.008) were more common in the neoadjuvant group. Thirty-day mortality (2.0 vs. 1.5%, p = 0.56) and postoperative morbidity rates (56.3 vs. 52.8%, p = 0.35) were similar between groups. Neoadjuvant therapy patients had fewer organ space infections (3.0 vs. 10.3%, p = 0.001), and neoadjuvant radiation patients had fewer pancreatic fistulas (7.3 vs. 15.4%, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Despite evidence for more extensive disease, patients receiving neoadjuvant therapy did not experience more complications. Neoadjuvant radiation was associated with lower pancreatic fistula rates. These data provide evidence against higher postoperative complication rates in patients with pancreatic cancer who are treated with neoadjuvant therapy.

RAS mutations predict radiologic and pathologic response in patients treated with chemotherapy before resection of colorectal liver metastases.

BACKGROUND: RAS mutations have been reported to be a potential prognostic factor in patients with colorectal liver metastases (CLM). However, the impact of RAS mutations on response to chemotherapy remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between RAS mutations and response to preoperative chemotherapy and their impact on survival in patients undergoing curative resection of CLM. METHODS: RAS mutational status was assessed and its relation to morphologic response and pathologic response was investigated in 184 patients meeting inclusion criteria. Predictors of survival were assessed. The prognostic impact of RAS mutational status was then analyzed using two different multivariate models, including either radiologic morphologic response (model 1) or pathologic response (model 2). RESULTS: Optimal morphologic response and major pathologic response were more common in patients with wild-type RAS (32.9 and 58.9%, respectively) than in patients with RAS mutations (10.5 and 36.8%; P = 0.006 and 0.015, respectively). Multivariate analysis confirmed that wild-type RAS was a strong predictor of optimal morphologic response [odds ratio (OR), 4.38; 95% CI 1.45-13.15] and major pathologic response (OR, 2.61; 95% CI 1.17-5.80). RAS mutations were independently correlated with both overall survival and recurrence free-survival (hazard ratios, 3.57 and 2.30, respectively, in model 1, and 3.19 and 2.09, respectively, in model 2). Subanalysis revealed that RAS mutational status clearly stratified survival in patients with inadequate response to preoperative chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS: RAS mutational status can be used to complement the current prognostic indicators for patients undergoing curative resection of CLM after preoperative modern chemotherapy.

Characterization of Anthropometric Changes that Occur During Neoadjuvant Therapy for Potentially Resectable Pancreatic Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about changes in body composition that may occur during neoadjuvant therapy for pancreatic cancer. This study was designed to characterize these changes and their potential relationships with therapeutic outcomes. METHODS: The study population consisted of patients with potentially resectable pancreatic cancer treated on a phase II trial of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and chemoradiation. Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue compartments were measured before and after administration of neoadjuvant therapy using SliceOMatic software (TomoVision, 2012) and protocol-mandated CT scans. Sarcopenia was defined using gender-adjusted norms. RESULTS: Among 89 eligible patients, 46 (52 %) patients met anthropometric criteria for sarcopenia prior to the initiation of neoadjuvant therapy. Further depletion of skeletal muscle, visceral adipose tissue, and subcutaneous adipose tissue occurred during neoadjuvant therapy, but these losses did not preclude the performance of potentially curative surgery. Degree of skeletal muscle loss correlated with disease-free survival while visceral adipose loss was associated with overall and progression-free survival. However, completion of all therapy, including pancreatectomy, was the only independently significant predictor of outcome in a multivariate analysis of overall survival. DISCUSSION: These data suggest that body composition analysis of standard CT images may provide clinically relevant information for patients with potentially resectable pancreatic cancer who receive neoadjuvant therapy. Anthropometric changes must be considered in the design of preoperative therapy regimens, and further efforts should focus on maintenance of muscle and visceral adipose tissue in the preoperative setting.

Role of neoadjuvant therapy in the multimodality treatment of older patients with pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND: A well-defined treatment strategy for elderly patients with resectable pancreatic cancer is lacking. Multiple reports have described highly selected older cancer patients who have successfully undergone pancreatectomy. However, multimodality therapy is essential for long-term survival, and elderly patients are at high risk for not receiving adjuvant therapy postoperatively. We sought to describe the treatment patterns and outcomes of a series of elderly patients with pancreatic cancer who were treated with a multimodality strategy that liberally used neoadjuvant therapy. STUDY DESIGN: We retrospectively reviewed treatment plans, short-term outcomes, and overall survival of all patients 70 years old and older, presenting to our institution over a 9-year period, who were treated for potentially resectable or borderline resectable pancreatic cancer. RESULTS: There were 179 (76%) of 236 patients treated with curative intent. Of these patients, 153 (85%) initiated neoadjuvant therapy: 74 (48%) subsequently underwent pancreatectomy and 79 did not due to disease progression (n = 46), insufficient performance status (n = 23), or other reasons (n = 10). Eleven (42%) of 26 patients who underwent surgery first received postoperative therapy. Among patients treated with curative intent, the median overall survival of all patients initiating neoadjuvant therapy (16.6 months [range 2.1 to 142.7 months]) was similar to that of patients undergoing resection primarily (15.1 months [range 5.4 to 100.8 months]), p = 0.53. After pancreatectomy, patients had a 2% in-hospital mortality rate and 91% were discharged home. CONCLUSIONS: Eighty-five percent of all patients 70 years old and older, who underwent pancreatectomy for potentially resectable or borderline resectable pancreatic cancer, received multimodality therapy. More than 90% were discharged home. These data demonstrate a potential role for neoadjuvant therapy in selecting elderly patients for surgery, and support further studies to refine individualized treatment protocols for this high-risk population.

Predictors of morbidity and mortality after hepatectomy in elderly patients: analysis of 7621 NSQIP patients.

OBJECTIVES: Increasingly, surgeons are performing hepatectomies in older patients. This study was designed to analyse the incidences of and risk factors for post-hepatectomy morbidity and mortality in elderly patients. METHODS: All elective hepatectomies for the period 2005-2010 recorded in the American College of Surgeons (ACS) National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) database were evaluated. Factors associated with 30-day rates of morbidity and mortality were compared between patients aged ≥75 years and those aged <75 years. RESULTS: Elderly patients accounted for 894 of 7621 (11.7%) hepatectomies. These patients more frequently had comorbidities (diabetes, cardiovascular or lung disease, lower albumin, elevated creatinine, anaesthesia risk; all P < 0.05) and were more likely to undergo partial or left rather than right or extended hepatectomies (P = 0.013). Despite the lesser surgical magnitude of these procedures, elderly patients experienced higher rates of severe complications (23.9% versus 18.4%; P < 0.001) and overall postoperative mortality (4.8% versus 2.0%; P < 0.001). The occurrence of any severe complication was associated with a mortality rate of 20.1% in elderly patients and 10.8% in non-elderly patients (P < 0.001). This disparity in mortality was more pronounced in patients with two or more (31.7% versus 20.2%; P < 0.001) and three or more (46.3% versus 31.1%; P < 0.001) severe complications. Independent risk factors for severe complications and/or mortality included an albumin level of < 4 g/dl, lung disease, intraoperative transfusion, a concurrent intra-abdominal operation, and an operative time of >240 min (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Given their lower physiologic reserve, elderly patients are at much greater risk for mortality after severe complications. To improve outcomes, surgeons should balance age and preoperative comorbidities with magnitude of hepatectomy.

Treatment of borderline resectable pancreatic cancer.

OPINION STATEMENT: Borderline resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma represents a subset of localized cancers that are at high risk for a margin-positive resection and early treatment failure when resected de novo. Although several different anatomic definitions for this disease stage exist, there is agreement that some degree of reconstructible mesenteric vessel involvement by the tumor is the critical anatomic feature that positions borderline resectable between anatomically resectable and unresectable (locally advanced) tumors in the spectrum of localized disease. Consensus also exists that such cancers should be treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy and/or chemoradiation before resection; although the optimal algorithm is unknown, systemic chemotherapy followed by chemoradiation is a rational approach. Although gemcitabine-based systemic chemotherapy with either 5-FU or gemcitabine-based chemoradiation regimens has been used to date, newer regimens, including FOLFIRINOX, should be evaluated on protocol. Delivery of neoadjuvant therapy necessitates durable biliary decompression for as many as 6 months in many patients with cancers of the pancreatic head. Patients with no evidence of metastatic disease following neoadjuvant therapy should be brought to the operating room for pancreatectomy, at which time resection of the superior mesenteric/portal vein and/or hepatic artery should be performed when necessary to achieve a margin-negative resection. Following completion of multimodality therapy, patients with borderline resectable pancreatic cancer can expect a duration of survival as favorable as that of patients who initially present with resectable tumors. Coordination among a multidisciplinary team of physicians is necessary to maximize these complex patients' short- and long-term oncologic outcomes.

Does laparoscopic adrenalectomy jeopardize oncologic outcomes for patients with adrenocortical carcinoma?

BACKGROUND: For patients with known or suspected adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC), considerable controversy exists over the use of laparoscopic adrenalectomy. The purpose of this study was to assess recurrence and survival patterns in patients with a pathologic diagnosis of ACC treated with laparoscopic versus open adrenalectomy. METHODS: All patients referred to our center with a diagnosis of ACC from April 1, 1993 to May 1, 2012 were reviewed. Three groups of patients were compared: patients referred after laparoscopic resection elsewhere, patients referred after open resection elsewhere, and patients treated primarily at our center (all resected by the open approach). Clinical factors and overall, recurrence-free, and peritoneal recurrence-free survivals were compared between groups. RESULTS: During the study period, 46 patients presented after laparoscopic resection at an outside institution, 210 patients after open resection at an outside institution, and 46 patients were treated at our institution with open resection. Despite a smaller tumor size, patients treated laparoscopically developed peritoneal carcinomatosis more frequently compared to those treated with an open approach (p = 0.006 for number with peritoneal recurrence). When controlling for tumor stage, open-approach patients experienced superior recurrence-free and overall survival. CONCLUSION: Despite typically being performed in patients with smaller tumors, laparoscopic adrenalectomy for ACC is associated with higher rates of recurrence, particularly peritoneal recurrence. For patients with known or suspected ACC, the oncologic benefits of open resection outweigh the short-term benefits of minimally invasive surgery.