Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Complex I Dysfunction Correlate with Neurodegeneration in an α-Synucleinopathy Animal Model.

The α-synucleinopathies constitute a subset of neurodegenerative disorders, of which Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common worldwide, characterized by the accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein in the cytoplasm of neurons, which spreads in a prion-like manner to anatomically interconnected brain areas. However, it is not clear how α-synucleinopathy triggers neurodegeneration. We recently developed a rat model through a single intranigral administration of the neurotoxic ß-sitosterol ß-D-glucoside (BSSG), which produces α-synucleinopathy. In this model, we aimed to evaluate the temporal pattern of levels in oxidative and nitrosative stress and mitochondrial complex I (CI) dysfunction and how these biochemical parameters are associated with neurodegeneration in different brain areas with α-synucleinopathy (Substantia nigra pars compacta, the striatum, in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb, where α-syn aggregation spreads). Interestingly, an increase in oxidative stress and mitochondrial CI dysfunction accompanied neurodegeneration in those brain regions. Furthermore, in silico analysis suggests a high-affinity binding site for BSSG with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) alpha (PPAR-α) and gamma (PPAR-γ). These findings will contribute to elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with α-synucleinopathies and lead to the identification of new early biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Mapping Proteoglycan Function Using Novel Genetic Strategies.

Multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute to stem and neuronal precursor cell maintenance and/or differentiation. Proteoglycans, major residents of the stem cell microenvironment, modulate key signaling cues and are of particular importance. The complexity and diversity of the glycan structure of proteoglycans make their functional characterization a challenging task. In order to test the functional role of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in cell self-renewal, maintenance, and differentiation, we have taken a loss-of-function approach by developing a library of both biosynthetic and degradative enzymes to specifically remodel the ECM.

The PLB measurement for the connector in Phi29 bacteriophage reveals the function of its channel loop.

The connector protein, also known as the portal protein, located at the portal vertex in the Phi29 bacteriophage has been found to play a key role in the genome DNA packaging motor. There is a disordered region, composed of 12 sets of 18-residue loops N229-N246, that has been assumed to serve as a "clamp" to retain the DNA within the pressurized capsid when DNA is fully packaged. However, the process remains undefined about how the clamping of DNA occurs and what signal is used to engage the channel loops to clamp the DNA near the end of DNA packaging. In this study, we use the planar lipid bilayer (PLB) membrane technique to study the connector with its loops cleaved. The channel properties are compared with those of the connector with corresponding wild-type loops at different membrane potentials. On the basis of the hypothesis of the Donnan effects in the flashing Brownian ratchet model, we associate the PLB experimental results with the outcomes from the relevant biochemical experiments on the proheads containing the connectors without the loops, which enables us to provide a clear picture about how the DNA clamping occurs. A mathematical relationship between the Donnan potential and the DNA packaging density is established, demonstrating that they are both in essence the same signal that is received and transmitted by the connector to dictate DNA clamping and the termination of DNA packaging. At the end of the study, the PLB technique is proposed as a viral research tool, and its potential use to study the functions of specific domains in a portal protein of the tailed bacteriophages is highlighted.

H2S oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction in a two-stage bioreactor: Targeting H2S-rich biogas desulfurization.

A two-stage bioreactor operated under anoxic denitrifying conditions was evaluated for desulfurization of synthetic biogas laden with H2S concentrations between 2500 and 10,000 ppmv. H2S removal efficiencies higher than 95% were achieved for H2S loads ranging from 16.2 to 51.9 gS mliquid-3h-1. Average H2S oxidation performance (fraction of S-SO42- produced per gram of S-H2S absorbed) ranged between 8.2 ± 1.2 and 18.7 ± 5.3% under continuous liquid operation. Nitrogen mass balance showed that only 2-6% of the N-NO3- consumed was directed to biomass growth and the rest was directed to denitrification. Significant changes in the bacterial community composition did not hinder the H2S removal efficiency. The bioreactor configuration proposed avoided clogging issues due to elemental sulfur accumulation as commonly occurs in packed bed bioreactors devoted to H2S-rich biogas desulfurization.

Distinct Roles for Matrix Metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in Embryonic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Emergence, Migration, and Niche Colonization.

Hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) are formed during ontogeny from hemogenic endothelium in the ventral wall of the dorsal aorta (VDA). Critically, the cellular mechanism(s) allowing HSPC egress and migration to secondary niches are incompletely understood. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are inflammation-responsive proteins that regulate extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, cellular interactions, and signaling. Here, inhibition of vascular-associated Mmp2 function caused accumulation of fibronectin-rich ECM, retention of runx1/cmyb+ HSPCs in the VDA, and delayed caudal hematopoietic tissue (CHT) colonization; these defects were absent in fibronectin mutants, indicating that Mmp2 facilitates endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition via ECM remodeling. In contrast, Mmp9 was dispensable for HSPC budding, being instead required for proper colonization of secondary niches. Significantly, these migration defects were mimicked by overexpression and blocked by knockdown of C-X-C motif chemokine-12 (cxcl12), suggesting that Mmp9 controls CHT homeostasis through chemokine regulation. Our findings indicate Mmp2 and Mmp9 play distinct but complementary roles in developmental HSPC production and migration.

HIF1α-induced PDGFRß signaling promotes developmental HSC production via IL-6 activation.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have the ability to both self-renew and differentiate each of the mature blood cell lineages and thereby reconstitute the entire blood system. Therefore, HSCs are therapeutically valuable for treatment of hematological malignances and bone marrow failure. We showed recently that transient glucose elevation elicited dose-dependent effects on HSCs through elevated metabolic activity and subsequent reactive oxygen species-mediated induction of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1α (Hif1α). Platelet-Derived Growth Factor B (pdgfb), a Hif1α-target, and its receptor, pdgfrb, were significantly upregulated in response to metabolic stimulation. Although the function of PDGF signaling is well established in vascular development, its role in hematopoiesis is less understood. Exposure to either a pan-PDGF inhibitor or a PDGFRß-selective antagonist in the context of Hif1α stimulation blocked elevations in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) formation as determined by runx1;cmyb whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH) and HSPC-reporter flow cytometry analysis. Similar results were observed for morpholino (MO) knockdown of pdgfrb or dominant-negative pdgfrb expression, indicating that PDGFRß signaling is a key downstream mediator of Hif1α-mediated induction of HSPCs. Notably, overexpression of Pdgfb ligand enhanced HSPC numbers in the aorta-gonado-mesonephros (AGM) at 36 hours postfertilization (hpf) and in the caudal hematopoietic tissue at 48 hpf. A survey of known PDGF-B/PDGFRß regulatory targets by expression analysis revealed a significant increase in inflammatory intermediates, including Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and its receptor (IL-6R). MO-mediated knockdown of il6 or chemical inhibition of IL-6R antagonized the effect of Pdgfb overexpression. Furthermore, epistatic analysis of IL-6/IL-6R function confirmed activity downstream of Hif1α. Together, these findings define a Hif1α-regulated signaling axis mediated through PBFGB/PDGFRß and IL-6/IL-6R that acts to control embryonic HSPC production.

Developmental Vitamin D Availability Impacts Hematopoietic Stem Cell Production.

Vitamin D insufficiency is a worldwide epidemic affecting billions of individuals, including pregnant women and children. Despite its high incidence, the impact of active vitamin D3 (1,25(OH)D3) on embryonic development beyond osteo-regulation remains largely undefined. Here, we demonstrate that 1,25(OH)D3 availability modulates zebrafish hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) production. Loss of Cyp27b1-mediated biosynthesis or vitamin D receptor (VDR) function by gene knockdown resulted in significantly reduced runx1 expression and Flk1+cMyb+ HSPC numbers. Selective modulation in vivo and in vitro in zebrafish indicated that vitamin D3 acts directly on HSPCs, independent of calcium regulation, to increase proliferation. Notably, ex vivo treatment of human HSPCs with 1,25(OH)D3 also enhanced hematopoietic colony numbers, illustrating conservation across species. Finally, gene expression and epistasis analysis indicated that CXCL8(IL-8) was a functional target of vitamin D3-mediated HSPC regulation. Together, these findings highlight the relevance of developmental 1,25(OH)D3 availability for definitive hematopoiesis and suggest potential therapeutic utility in HSPC expansion.

Enumerating Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Zebrafish Embryos.

Over the past 20 years, zebrafish have proven to be a valuable model to dissect the signaling pathways involved in hematopoiesis, including Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cell (HSPC) formation and homeostasis. Despite tremendous efforts to generate the tools necessary to characterize HSPCs in vitro and in vivo the zebrafish community still lacks standardized methods to quantify HSPCs across laboratories. Here, we describe three methods used routinely in our lab, and in others, to reliably enumerate HSPCs in zebrafish embryos: large-scale live imaging of transgenic reporter lines, Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS), and in vitro cell culture. While live imaging and FACS analysis allows enumeration of total or site-specific HSPCs, the cell culture assay provides the unique opportunity to test the functional potential of isolated HSPCs, similar to those employed in mammals.

The Central Nervous System Regulates Embryonic HSPC Production via Stress-Responsive Glucocorticoid Receptor Signaling.

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) specification is regulated by numerous defined factors acting locally within the hemogenic niche; however, it is unclear whether production can adapt to fluctuating systemic needs. Here we show that the CNS controls embryonic HSPC numbers via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal/interrenal (HPA/I) stress response axis. Exposure to serotonin or the reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine increased runx1 expression and Flk1(+)/cMyb(+) HSPCs independent of peripheral innervation. Inhibition of neuronal, but not peripheral, tryptophan hydroxlyase (Tph) persistently reduced HSPC number. Consistent with central HPA/I axis induction and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) activation, GR agonists enhanced, whereas GR loss diminished, HSPC formation. Significantly, developmental hypoxia, as indicated by Hif1α function, induced the HPA/I axis and cortisol production. Furthermore, Hif1α-stimulated HSPC enhancement was attenuated by neuronal tph or GR loss. Our data establish that embryonic HSC production responds to physiologic stress via CNS-derived serotonin synthesis and central feedback regulation to control HSC numbers.

Iterative use of nuclear receptor Nr5a2 regulates multiple stages of liver and pancreas development.

The stepwise progression of common endoderm progenitors into differentiated liver and pancreas organs is regulated by a dynamic array of signals that are not well understood. The nuclear receptor subfamily 5, group A, member 2 gene nr5a2, also known as Liver receptor homolog-1 (Lrh-1) is expressed in several tissues including the developing liver and pancreas. Here, we interrogate the role of Nr5a2 at multiple developmental stages using genetic and chemical approaches and uncover novel pleiotropic requirements during zebrafish liver and pancreas development. Zygotic loss of nr5a2 in a targeted genetic null mutant disrupted the development of the exocrine pancreas and liver, while leaving the endocrine pancreas intact. Loss of nr5a2 abrogated exocrine pancreas markers such as trypsin, while pancreas progenitors marked by ptf1a or pdx1 remained unaffected, suggesting a role for Nr5a2 in regulating pancreatic acinar cell differentiation. In the developing liver, Nr5a2 regulates hepatic progenitor outgrowth and differentiation, as nr5a2 mutants exhibited reduced hepatoblast markers hnf4α and prox1 as well as differentiated hepatocyte marker fabp10a. Through the first in vivo use of Nr5a2 chemical antagonist Cpd3, the iterative requirement for Nr5a2 for exocrine pancreas and liver differentiation was temporally elucidated: chemical inhibition of Nr5a2 function during hepatopancreas progenitor specification was sufficient to disrupt exocrine pancreas formation and enhance the size of the embryonic liver, suggesting that Nr5a2 regulates hepatic vs. pancreatic progenitor fate choice. Chemical inhibition of Nr5a2 at a later time during pancreas and liver differentiation was sufficient to block the formation of mature acinar cells and hepatocytes. These findings define critical iterative and pleiotropic roles for Nr5a2 at distinct stages of pancreas and liver organogenesis, and provide novel perspectives for interpreting the role of Nr5a2 in disease.

Single-cell transcriptional analysis of normal, aberrant, and malignant hematopoiesis in zebrafish.

Hematopoiesis culminates in the production of functionally heterogeneous blood cell types. In zebrafish, the lack of cell surface antibodies has compelled researchers to use fluorescent transgenic reporter lines to label specific blood cell fractions. However, these approaches are limited by the availability of transgenic lines and fluorescent protein combinations that can be distinguished. Here, we have transcriptionally profiled single hematopoietic cells from zebrafish to define erythroid, myeloid, B, and T cell lineages. We also used our approach to identify hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells and a novel NK-lysin 4(+) cell type, representing a putative cytotoxic T/NK cell. Our platform also quantified hematopoietic defects in rag2(E450fs) mutant fish and showed that these fish have reduced T cells with a subsequent expansion of NK-lysin 4(+) cells and myeloid cells. These data suggest compensatory regulation of the innate immune system in rag2(E450fs) mutant zebrafish. Finally, analysis of Myc-induced T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia showed that cells are arrested at the CD4(+)/CD8(+) cortical thymocyte stage and that a subset of leukemia cells inappropriately reexpress stem cell genes, including bmi1 and cmyb In total, our experiments provide new tools and biological insights into single-cell heterogeneity found in zebrafish blood and leukemia.

Validity and reliability of a novel Color-Risk Psychiatric Triage in a psychiatric emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Classification of Psychiatric Emergency Presentations (PEP) is not sufficiently clear due to their inherent high inter-subjectivity and lack of validated triage instruments. In order to improve current classification of psychiatric emergency presentations (PEP) at Emergency Departments, we implemented and validated the Color-Risk Psychiatric Triage (CRPT), an instrument for classifying PEP risk by sorting one to five color/risk levels and one to thirty-two possible conditions arranged by risk. METHODS: Users who visited the Emergency Department (ED) of a Mexican psychiatric hospital from Dec 1st, 2008 to Dec 1st, 2009 were included. One CRPT was assessed by an ED psychiatrist to each patient upon their arrival to ED. Some patients were randomly assessed simultaneously with an additional CRPT and a Crisis and Triage Rating Scale (CTRS) to test validity and reliability of the CRPT. RESULTS: A total of 7,631 CRPT assessments were included. The majority of PEP were non-urgent (74.28 %). For the validation phase n = 158 patients were included. CRPT score showed higher concurrent validity than CRPT color/risk. CRPT level/risk and score showed highest concurrent validity within dangerousness domain of CTRS (r = 0.703, p < 0.0001). CRPT and CTRS scores showed similar predictive validity (p < 0.0001). High intraclass correlation coefficient (0.982) and Cohen's Kappa (0.89) were observed for CRPT score (r = 0.982, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: CRPT appeared to be a useful instrument for PEP classification due to its concurrent validity, predictive validity and reliability. CRPT score showed higher correlations than the CRPT color/risk. The five levels of risk provided by the CRPT appear to represent a simple and specific method for classifying PEP. This approach considers actual or potential risk, rather than severity, as the main factor for sorting PEP, which improves upon the current approach to emergency classification that is mainly based on the criterion of severity. Regardless of the triage procedure, emergency assessments should no longer classify PEP as "not real emergencies."

Cannabinoid receptor signaling regulates liver development and metabolism.

Endocannabinoid (EC) signaling mediates psychotropic effects and regulates appetite. By contrast, potential roles in organ development and embryonic energy consumption remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that genetic or chemical inhibition of cannabinoid receptor (Cnr) activity disrupts liver development and metabolic function in zebrafish (Danio rerio), impacting hepatic differentiation, but not endodermal specification: loss of cannabinoid receptor 1 (cnr1) and cnr2 activity leads to smaller livers with fewer hepatocytes, reduced liver-specific gene expression and proliferation. Functional assays reveal abnormal biliary anatomy and lipid handling. Adult cnr2 mutants are susceptible to hepatic steatosis. Metabolomic analysis reveals reduced methionine content in Cnr mutants. Methionine supplementation rescues developmental and metabolic defects in Cnr mutant livers, suggesting a causal relationship between EC signaling, methionine deficiency and impaired liver development. The effect of Cnr on methionine metabolism is regulated by sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factors (Srebfs), as their overexpression rescues Cnr mutant liver phenotypes in a methionine-dependent manner. Our work describes a novel developmental role for EC signaling, whereby Cnr-mediated regulation of Srebfs and methionine metabolism impacts liver development and function.

Accumulation of the Vitamin D Precursor Cholecalciferol Antagonizes Hedgehog Signaling to Impair Hemogenic Endothelium Formation.

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) are born from hemogenic endothelium in the dorsal aorta. Specification of this hematopoietic niche is regulated by a signaling axis using Hedgehog (Hh) and Notch, which culminates in expression of Runx1 in the ventral wall of the artery. Here, we demonstrate that the vitamin D precursor cholecalciferol (D3) modulates HSPC production by impairing hemogenic vascular niche formation. Accumulation of D3 through exogenous treatment or inhibition of Cyp2r1, the enzyme required for D3 25-hydroxylation, results in Hh pathway antagonism marked by loss of Gli-reporter activation, defects in vascular niche identity, and reduced HSPCs. Mechanistic studies indicated the effect was specific to D3, and not active 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3, acting on the extracellular sterol-binding domain of Smoothened. These findings highlight a direct impact of inefficient vitamin D synthesis on cell fate commitment and maturation in Hh-regulated tissues, which may have implications beyond hemogenic endothelium specification.

Cannabinoid Receptor-2 Regulates Embryonic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Development via Prostaglandin E2 and P-Selectin Activity.

Cannabinoids (CB) modulate adult hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPCs) function, however, impact on the production, expansion, or migration of embryonic HSCs is currently uncharacterized. Here, using chemical and genetic approaches targeting CB-signaling in zebrafish, we show that CB receptor (CNR) 2, but not CNR1, regulates embryonic HSC development. During HSC specification in the aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region, CNR2 stimulation by AM1241 increased runx1;cmyb(+) HSPCs, through heightened proliferation, whereas CNR2 antagonism decreased HSPC number; FACS analysis and absolute HSC counts confirmed and quantified these effects. Epistatic investigations showed AM1241 significantly upregulated PGE2 synthesis in a Ptgs2-dependent manner to increase AGM HSCs. During the phases of HSC production and colonization of secondary niches, AM1241 accelerated migration to the caudal hematopoietic tissue (CHT), the site of embryonic HSC expansion, and the thymus; however these effects occurred independently of PGE2. Using a candidate approach for HSC migration and retention factors, P-selectin was identified as the functional target of CNR2 regulation. Epistatic analyses confirmed migration of HSCs into the CHT and thymus was dependent on CNR2-regulated P-selectin activity. Together, these data suggest CNR2-signaling optimizes the production, expansion, and migration of embryonic HSCs by modulating multiple downstream signaling pathways.

Mapping proteoglycan functions with glycosidases.

The intrinsic and extrinsic factors that contribute to stem and neuronal precursor cell maintenance and/or differentiation remain poorly understood. Proteoglycans, major residents of the stem cell microenvironment, modulate key signaling cues and are of particular importance. We have taken a loss-of-function approach, by developing a library of bacterial lyases and sulfatases to specifically remodel the ECM and test the functional role of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in cell self-renewal, maintenance, and differentiation.

Aggrecan is required for growth plate cytoarchitecture and differentiation.

The proteoglycan aggrecan is a prominent component of the extracellular matrix in growth plate cartilage. A naturally occurring, recessive, perinatally lethal mutation in the aggrecan core protein gene, cmd(bc) (Acan(cmd-Bc)), that deletes the entire protein-coding sequence provided a model in which to characterize the phenotypic and morphologic effects of aggrecan deletion on skeletal development. We also generated a novel transgenic mouse, Tg(COL2A1-ACAN), that has the chick ACAN coding sequence driven by the mouse COL2A1 promoter to enable the production of cmd(bc)/cmd(bc); Tg(COL2A1-ACAN) rescue embryos. These were used to assess the impact of aggrecan on growth plate organization, chondrocyte survival and proliferation, and the expression of mRNAs encoding chondrocyte differentiation markers and growth factors. Homozygous mutant (cmd(bc)/cmd(bc)) embryos exhibited severe defects in all skeletal elements with deformed and shortened (50%) limb elements. Expression of aggrecan in rescue embryos reversed the skeletal defects to varying degrees with a 20% increase in limb element length and near-full reversal (80%) of size and diameter of the ribcage and vertebrae. Aggrecan-null growth plates were devoid of matrix and lacked chondrocyte organization and differentiation, while those of the rescue embryos exhibited matrix production concomitant with partial zonation of chondrocytes having proliferative and hypertrophic morphologies. Deformation of the trachea, likely the cause of the mutation's lethality, was reduced in the rescue embryos. Aggrecan-null embryos also had abnormal patterns of COL10A1, SOX9, IHH, PTCH1, and FGFR3 mRNA expression in the growth plate. Expression of chick aggrecan in the rescue embryos notably increased COLX expression, accompanied by the reappearance of a hypertrophic zone and IHH expression. Significantly, in transgenic rescue embryos, the cell death and decreased proliferation phenotypes exhibited by the mutants were reversed; both were restored to wild-type levels. These findings suggest that aggrecan has a major role in regulating the expression of key growth factors and signaling molecules during development of cartilaginous tissue and is essential for proper chondrocyte organization, morphology, and survival during embryonic limb development.

Inflammatory signaling regulates embryonic hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell production.

Identifying signaling pathways that regulate hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) formation in the embryo will guide efforts to produce and expand HSPCs ex vivo. Here we show that sterile tonic inflammatory signaling regulates embryonic HSPC formation. Expression profiling of progenitors with lymphoid potential and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from aorta/gonad/mesonephros (AGM) regions of midgestation mouse embryos revealed a robust innate immune/inflammatory signature. Mouse embryos lacking interferon γ (IFN-γ) or IFN-α signaling and zebrafish morphants lacking IFN-γ and IFN-ϕ activity had significantly fewer AGM HSPCs. Conversely, knockdown of IFN regulatory factor 2 (IRF2), a negative regulator of IFN signaling, increased expression of IFN target genes and HSPC production in zebrafish. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) combined with sequencing (ChIP-seq) and expression analyses demonstrated that IRF2-occupied genes identified in human fetal liver CD34(+) HSPCs are actively transcribed in human and mouse HSPCs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the primitive myeloid population contributes to the local inflammatory response to impact the scale of HSPC production in the AGM region. Thus, sterile inflammatory signaling is an evolutionarily conserved pathway regulating the production of HSPCs during embryonic development.