Extracellular Vesicles in Trypanosoma cruzi Infection: Immunomodulatory Effects and Future Perspectives as Potential Control Tools against Chagas Disease.

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoa parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a neglected tropical disease and a major public health problem affecting more than 6 million people worldwide. Many challenges remain in the quest to control Chagas disease: the diagnosis presents several limitations and the two available treatments cause several side effects, presenting limited efficacy during the chronic phase of the disease. In addition, there are no preventive vaccines or biomarkers of therapeutic response or disease outcome. Trypomastigote form and T. cruzi-infected cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are involved in cell-to-cell communication and can modulate the host immune response. Importantly, EVs have been described as promising tools for the development of new therapeutic strategies, such as vaccines, and for the discovery of new biomarkers. Here, we review and discuss the role of EVs secreted during T. cruzi infection and their immunomodulatory properties. Finally, we briefly describe their potential for biomarker discovery and future perspectives as vaccine development tools for Chagas Disease.

Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of alkaloids isolated from Habranthus brachyandrus (Amaryllidaceae) from Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, affects over six million people worldwide, mainly in Latin American countries. Currently available drugs have variable efficacy in the chronic phase and significant side effects, so there is an urgent need for safer chemotherapeutic treatments. Natural products provide privileged structures that could serve as templates for the synthesis of new drugs. Among them, Amaryllidaceae plants have proved to be a potential natural source of therapeutical agents due to their rich diversity in alkaloids. PURPOSE: To identify alkaloids with anti-T. cruzi activity from Habranthus brachyandrus (Baker) Sealy (Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Amaryllidoideae) collected in Argentina. METHODS: An H. brachyandrus alkaloid extract was tested against T. cruzi, and its cytotoxicity profile was evaluated against two mammalian cell lines to ascertain its selectivity against the parasite and potential liver toxicity. It was also assessed by a stage-specific anti-amastigote assay and analysed by GC/MS to determine its alkaloid profile. The isolated alkaloids were also tested using the aforementioned assays. RESULTS: The extract showed high and specific activity against T. cruzi. The alkaloids lycoramine, galanthindole, 8-O-demethylmaritidine, 8-O-demethylhomolycorine, nerinine, trisphaeridine, deoxytazettine, and tazettamide were identified by means of GC-MS. In addition, hippeastidine (also named aulicine), tazzetine, ismine, and 3-epimacronine were isolated. The alkaloid ismine was specifically active against the parasite and had low toxicity against HepG2 cells, but did not show anti-amastigote activity. CONCLUSION: The extract had specific anti-T. cruzi activity and the isolated alkaloid ismine was partially responsible of it. These results encourage further exploration of H. brachyandrus alkaloids in search of novel starting points for Chagas disease drug development.

Pre-exposure prophylaxis with hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19: a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is a promising strategy to break COVID-19 transmission. Although hydroxychloroquine was evaluated for treatment and post-exposure prophylaxis, it is not evaluated for COVID-19 PrEP yet. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of PrEP with hydroxychloroquine against placebo in healthcare workers at high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection during an epidemic period. METHODS: We conducted a double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial in three hospitals in Barcelona, Spain. From 350 adult healthcare workers screened, we included 269 participants with no active or past SARS-CoV-2 infection (determined by a negative nasopharyngeal SARS-CoV-2 PCR and a negative serology against SARS-CoV-2). Participants allocated in the intervention arm (PrEP) received 400 mg of hydroxychloroquine daily for the first four consecutive days and subsequently, 400 mg weekly during the study period. Participants in the control group followed the same treatment schedule with placebo tablets. RESULTS: 52.8% (142/269) of participants were in the hydroxychloroquine arm and 47.2% (127/269) in the placebo arm. Given the national epidemic incidence decay, only one participant in each group was diagnosed with COVID-19. The trial was stopped due to futility and our study design was deemed underpowered to evaluate any benefit regarding PrEP efficacy. Both groups showed a similar proportion of participants experiencing at least one adverse event (AE) (p=0.548). No serious AEs were reported. Almost all AEs (96.4%, 106/110) were mild. Only mild gastrointestinal symptoms were significantly higher in the hydroxychloroquine arm compared to the placebo arm (27.4% (39/142) vs 15.7% (20/127), p=0.041). CONCLUSIONS: Although the efficacy of PrEP with hydroxychloroquine for preventing COVID-19 could not be evaluated, our study showed that PrEP with hydroxychloroquine at low doses is safe. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04331834 . Registered on April 2, 2020.

Novel Purine Chemotypes with Activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma cruzi.

Malaria and Chagas disease, caused by Plasmodium spp. and Trypanosoma cruzi parasites, remain important global health problems. Available treatments for those diseases present several limitations, such as lack of efficacy, toxic side effects, and drug resistance. Thus, new drugs are urgently needed. The discovery of new drugs may be benefited by considering the significant biological differences between hosts and parasites. One of the most striking differences is found in the purine metabolism, because most of the parasites are incapable of de novo purine biosynthesis. Herein, we have analyzed the in vitro anti-P. falciparum and anti-T. cruzi activity of a collection of 81 purine derivatives and pyrimidine analogs. We firstly used a primary screening at three fixed concentrations (100, 10, and 1 µM) and progressed those compounds that kept the growth of the parasites < 30% at 100 µM to dose-response assays. Then, we performed two different cytotoxicity assays on Vero cells and human HepG2 cells. Finally, compounds specifically active against T. cruzi were tested against intracellular amastigote forms. Purines 33 (IC50 = 19.19 µM) and 76 (IC50 = 18.27 µM) were the most potent against P. falciparum. On the other hand, 6D (IC50 = 3.78 µM) and 34 (IC50 = 4.24 µM) were identified as hit purines against T. cruzi amastigotes. Moreover, an in silico docking study revealed that P. falciparum and T. cruzi hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase enzymes could be the potential targets of those compounds. Our study identified two novel, purine-based chemotypes that could be further optimized to generate potent and diversified anti-parasitic drugs against both parasites.

Amaryllidaceae plants: a potential natural resource for the treatment of Chagas disease.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease is a neglected zoonosis caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. It affects over six million people, mostly in Latin America. Drugs available to treat T. cruzi infection have associated toxicity and questionable efficacy at the chronic stage. Hence, the discovery of more effective and safer drugs is an unmet medical need. For this, natural products represent a pool of unique chemical diversity that can serve as excellent templates for the synthesis of active molecules. METHODS: A collection of 79 extracts of Amaryllidaceae plants were screened against T. cruzi. Active extracts against the parasite were progressed through two cell toxicity assays based on Vero and HepG2 cells to determine their selectivity profile and discard those toxic to host cells. Anti-T. cruzi-specific extracts were further qualified by an anti-amastigote stage assay. RESULTS: Two extracts, respectively from Crinum erubescens and Rhodophiala andicola, were identified as highly active and specific against T. cruzi and its mammalian replicative form. CONCLUSIONS: The results retrieved in this study encourage further exploration of the chemical content of these extracts in search of new anti-T. cruzi drug development starting points.

Identification of Trypanosoma cruzi Growth Inhibitors with Activity In Vivo within a Collection of Licensed Drugs.

Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), affects more than six million people worldwide, with its greatest burden in Latin America. Available treatments present frequent toxicity and variable efficacy at the chronic phase of the infection, when the disease is usually diagnosed. Hence, development of new therapeutic strategies is urgent. Repositioning of licensed drugs stands as an attractive fast-track low-cost approach for the identification of safer and more effective chemotherapies. With this purpose we screened 32 licensed drugs for different indications against T. cruzi. We used a primary in vitro assay of Vero cells infection by T. cruzi. Five drugs showed potent activity rates against it (IC50 < 4 µmol L-1), which were also specific (selectivity index >15) with respect to host cells. T. cruzi inhibitory activity of four of them was confirmed by a secondary anti-parasitic assay based on NIH-3T3 cells. Then, we assessed toxicity to human HepG2 cells and anti-amastigote specific activity of those drugs progressed. Ultimately, atovaquone-proguanil, miltefosine, and verapamil were tested in a mouse model of acute T. cruzi infection. Miltefosine performance in vitro and in vivo encourages further investigating its use against T. cruzi.

Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi Activity of Metabolism Modifier Compounds.

Chagas disease is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and affects over 6 million people worldwide. Development of new drugs to treat this disease remains a priority since those currently available have variable efficacy and frequent adverse effects, especially during the long regimens required for treating the chronic stage of the disease. T. cruzi modulates the host cell-metabolism to accommodate the cell cytosol into a favorable growth environment and acquire nutrients for its multiplication. In this study we evaluated the specific anti-T. cruzi activity of nine bio-energetic modulator compounds. Notably, we identified that 17-DMAG, which targets the ATP-binding site of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), has a very high (sub-micromolar range) selective inhibition of the parasite growth. This inhibitory effect was also highly potent (IC50 = 0.27 µmol L-1) against the amastigote intracellular replicative stage of the parasite. Moreover, molecular docking results suggest that 17-DMAG may bind T. cruzi Hsp90 homologue Hsp83 with good affinity. Evaluation in a mouse model of chronic T. cruzi infection did not show parasite growth inhibition, highlighting the difficulties encountered when going from in vitro assays onto preclinical drug developmental stages.

Benznidazole for the treatment of Chagas disease.

INTRODUCTION: Chagas disease affects 6-7 million people, mainly in the Americas, and benznidazole is one of the two therapeutic options available. Trypanocide treatment aims to eliminate the parasite from the body to prevent the establishment or progression of visceral damage, mainly cardiac and/or digestive. Remarkably, it helps interrupt vertical transmission when administered to women of childbearing age. AREAS COVERED: We discuss the basic and scarce data regarding chemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic structure. We also collect the most important data from previous phase II and III studies, as well as studies currently underway and upcoming. We reflect on the main indications for treatment and its challenges, such as the profile of adverse effects in adults, the pharmaceutical formulations, the search for reliable biomarkers, as well as regulatory aspects and access barriers. Alternative strategies such as shorter regimens, lower doses, and fixed doses are currently being evaluated to improve access and the safety profile of this treatment. EXPERT OPINION: Benznidazole is likely to continue to be the drug of choice for Chagas disease in the coming years. However, it would probably be with a different treatment scheme.

Strengthening the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system: New surveillance strategies to improve care for Chagas disease and tuberculosis.

Chagas disease (CD) and tuberculosis (TB) are important health problems in Bolivia. Current treatments for both infections require a long period of time, and adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are frequent. This study aims to strengthen the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system, focusing on CD and TB. A situation analysis of pharmacovigilance in the Department of Cochabamba was performed. The use of a new local case report form (CRF) was implemented, together with the CRF established by the Unidad de Medicamentos y Tecnología en Salud (UNIMED), in several healthcare centers. Training and follow-up on drug safety monitoring and ADR reporting was provided to all health professionals involved in CD and TB treatment. A comparative analysis of the reported ADRs using the CRF provided by UNIMED, the new CRF proposal, and medical records, was also performed. Our results showed that out of all patients starting treatment for CD, 37.9% suffered ADRs according to the medical records, and 25.3% of them were classified as moderate/severe (MS). Only 47.4% of MS ADRs were reported to UNIMED. Regarding TB treatment, 9.9% of all patients suffered ADRs, 44% of them were classified as MS, and 75% of MS ADRs were reported to UNIMED. These findings show that the reinforcement of the Bolivian pharmacovigilance system is an ambitious project that should involve a long-term perspective and the engagement of national health workers and other stakeholders at all levels. Continuity and perseverance are essential to achieve a solid ADR reporting system, improving patient safety, drug efficacy and adherence to treatment.

Emerging agents for the treatment of Chagas disease: what is in the preclinical and clinical development pipeline?

INTRODUCTION: Chagas disease treatment relies on the lengthy administration of benznidazole and/or nifurtimox, which have frequent toxicity associated. The disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is mostly diagnosed at its chronic phase when life-threatening symptomatology manifest in approximately 30% of those infected. Considering that both available drugs have variable efficacy by then, and there are over 6 million people infected, there is a pressing need to find safer, more efficacious drugs. AREAS COVERED: We provide an updated view of the path to achieve the aforementioned goal. From state-of-the-art in vitro and in vivo assays based on genetically engineered parasites that have allowed high throughput screenings of large chemical collections, to the unfulfilled requirement of having treatment-response biomarkers for the clinical evaluation of drugs. In between, we describe the most promising pre-clinical hits and the landscape of clinical trials with new drugs or new regimens of existing ones. Moreover, the use of monkey models to reduce the pre-clinical to clinical attrition rate is discussed. EXPERT OPINION: In addition to the necessary research on new drugs and much awaited biomarkers of treatment efficacy, a key step will be to generalize access to diagnosis and treatment and maximize efforts to impede transmission.

Plasma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Biomarkers in Heart Transplant Patient with Chronic Chagas Disease.

Chagas disease is emerging in countries to which it is not endemic. Biomarkers for earlier therapeutic response assessment in patients with chronic Chagas disease are needed. We profiled plasma-derived extracellular vesicles from a heart transplant patient with chronic Chagas disease and showed the potential of this approach for discovering such biomarkers.

Amaryllidaceae alkaloids with anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is a neglected disease that affects ~7 million people worldwide. Development of new drugs to treat the infection remains a priority since those currently available have frequent side effects and limited efficacy at the chronic stage. Natural products provide a pool of diversity structures to lead the chemical synthesis of novel molecules for this purpose. Herein we analyzed the anti-T. cruzi activity of nine alkaloids derived from plants of the family Amaryllidaceae. METHODS: The activity of each alkaloid was assessed by means of an anti-T. cruzi phenotypic assay. We further evaluated the compounds that inhibited parasite growth on two distinct cytotoxicity assays to discard those that were toxic to host cells and assure parasite selectivity. RESULTS: We identified a single compound (hippeastrine) that was selectively active against the parasite yielding selectivity indexes of 12.7 and 35.2 against Vero and HepG2 cells, respectively. Moreover, it showed specific activity against the amastigote stage (IC50 = 3.31 µM). CONCLUSIONS: Results reported here suggest that natural products are an interesting source of new compounds for the development of drugs against Chagas disease.

State-of-the-art in host-derived biomarkers of Chagas disease prognosis and early evaluation of anti-Trypanosoma cruzi treatment response.

Chagas disease is caused by infection with the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which might lead to a chronic disease state and drive to irreversible damage to the heart and/or digestive tract tissues. Endemic in 21 countries in the Americas, it is the neglected disease with a highest burden in the region. Current estimates point at ~6 million people infected, of which ~30% will progress onto the symptomatic tissue disruptive stage. There is no vaccine but there are two anti-parasitic drugs available: benznidazole and nifurtimox. However, their efficacy is variable at the chronic symptomatic stage and both have frequent adverse effects. Since there are no prognosis markers, drugs should be administered to all T. cruzi-infected individuals in the indeterminate and early symptomatic stages. Nowadays, there are no tests-of-cure either, which greatly undermines patients follow-up and the search of safer and more efficacious drugs. Therefore, the identification and validation of biomarkers of disease progression and/or treatment response on which to develop tests of prognosis and/or cure is a major research priority. Both parasite- and host-derived markers have been investigated. In the present manuscript we present an updated outlook of the latter.

Host-Derived Molecules as Novel Chagas Disease Biomarkers: Hypercoagulability Markers in Plasma.

The most severe clinical symptomatology of Chagas disease affects ~30% of those chronically infected with the Trypanosoma cruzi parasite. The pathogenic mechanisms that lead to life-threatening heart and gut tissue disruptions occur "silently" for a longtime in a majority of cases. As a result, despite there are several serological and molecular methods available to diagnose the infection in its acute and chronic stages, diagnosis is often achieved only after the onset of clinical symptoms in the chronic phase of the disease. Furthermore, although there are two drugs to treat it, the assessment of their performance is impractical with current parasite-derived diagnostics, and therapeutic efficacy cannot be acknowledged in a timely manner.In this chapter we present two procedures to measure host-derived molecules as surrogates of therapeutic response against chronic T. cruzi infection. Their outputs relate to the generation and activity of thrombin, a major component of the blood coagulation cascade. This is due to the fact that a hypercoagulability state has been described to occur in chronic Chagas disease patients and revert after treatment with benznidazole.

Strategies to enhance access to diagnosis and treatment for Chagas disease patients in Latin America.

INTRODUCTION: Chagas disease, caused by infection with the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, represents a huge public health problem in the Americas, where millions of people are affected. Despite the availability of two drugs against the infection (benznidazole and nifurtimox), multiple factors impede their effective usage: (1) gaps in patient and healthcare provider awareness; (2) lack of access to diagnosis; (3) drug toxicity and absence of treatment algorithms to address adverse effects; (4) failures in drug supply and distribution; and (5) inconsistent drug efficacy against the symptomatic chronic stage. Areas covered: We review new approaches and technologies to enhance access to diagnosis and treatment to reduce the disease burden. We also provide an updated picture of recently published and ongoing anti-T. cruzi drug clinical trials. Although there has been progress improving the research and development (R&D) landscape, it is unclear whether any new treatments will emerge soon. Literature search methodologies included multiple queries to public databases and the use of own-built libraries. Expert opinion: Besides R&D, there is a major need to continue awareness and advocacy efforts by patient associations, local and national governments, and international agencies. Overall, health systems strengthening is essential to ensure vector control commitments, as well as patient access to diagnosis and treatment.

Characterization of digestive disorders of patients with chronic Chagas disease in Cochabamba, Bolivia.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease (CD) is endemic in Latin America and particularly common in Bolivia, but there is little information on the characteristics of chronic digestive involvement. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and characterize digestive manifestations in chronic CD patients in Cochabamba, Bolivia. METHODS: Eighty-five T. cruzi-seropositive individuals with or without digestive symptoms (G1 group), and fifteen T. cruzi-seronegative patients with similar digestive symptoms to those seen in CD (G2 group) were included in the study. All patients underwent a detailed history including past medical history, epidemiological information, hygiene and dietary habits, a complete physical examination, two serological tests for T. cruzi, video endoscopy, barium swallow, and barium enema. FINDINGS: We observed digestive manifestations in T. cruzi seropositive and seronegative patients. Colonic manifestations were detected in both groups, highlighting the relevance of other confounder factors in the region. Constipation was present in 52.9% of G1 patients, 62.4% presented two or more upper digestive tract symptoms, and 5.9% of them presented esophageal manifestations. Helicobacter pylori infection was detected in 58.8% of G1 patients, and all patients presented gastritis on endoscopy. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of digestive involvement in CD patients is higher than expected. However, digestive symptoms are not always caused by T. cruzi infection and require differential diagnoses.

Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection Status using Saliva of Infected Subjects.

Chagas disease has the highest prevalence of any parasitic disease in the Americas, affecting 6-7 million people. Conventional diagnosis requires a well-equipped laboratory with experienced personnel. The development of new diagnostic tools that are easy to use and adapted to the reality of affected populations and health systems is still a significant challenge. The main objective of this study was to measure Trypanosoma cruzi infection status using saliva samples of infected subjects. Blood and saliva samples from 20 T. cruzi-seropositive individuals and 10 controls were tested for T. cruzi infection using two different commercial serological tests. We have shown that detection of T. cruzi infection is possible using saliva samples, supporting the potential use of saliva to diagnose Chagas disease in humans. This method could provide a simple, low-cost but effective tool for the diagnosis of T. cruzi infection. Its noninvasive nature makes it particularly well suited for endemic areas.