Disaggregating the influence of maturity status on training, anthropometric, performance, skeletal periphery, and hormonal factors in athletic boys.

Maturity offset (i.e., age from peak height velocity [PHV]) is widely used to assess maturational status among youth athletes, but details on the skeletal periphery, hormones and training factors are lacking. More precision is also needed to explicate the timing, tempo, and sequence of growth-related events. These gaps were addressed in a cross-sectional study. One hundred and two athletic boys (aged 14.1 ± 0.5 years) were evaluated for training details, salivary testosterone and cortisol, height, body mass, body mass index, body fat, fat-free mass (FFM), hand and carpal bone area, bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD), and countermovement jump performance. Participants were assigned to circa-PHV (N = 56) and post-PHV (N = 46) groups for comparisons, before data pooling and disaggregation using generalized additive and linear regression models. The older post-PHV group had a larger body size, more testosterone, and better performance and skeletal outcomes, whilst weekly training and school-based exercise favored the younger circa-PHV group (all p < 0.001). Smoother plots verified these differences via linear, or weakly non-linear, associations. Maturity offset was predicted (R2 = 0.848) by the linear combination of FFM (42.0 % relative contribution), hand BMD (31.5 %), chronological age (16.0 %), testosterone (6.7 %), and training hours (3.8 %). In conclusion, athletic boys who presented at different stages of maturity (-0.98 to 2.84 years from PHV) also differed on many developmental features. Most variables increased at constant, or near-constant, tempo with a higher maturity offset, with FFM and hand BMD emerging as the strongest linear predictors of maturational status.

Disentangling the dynamic interplay between muscle damage and energetics in male boxers during a short training block.

Boxing is a combat sport linked to muscle damage (e.g., soreness, rising creatine kinase [CK]) and energetic biomarkers (e.g., urea, glucose). These factors have not, however, been examined dynamically in terms of day-to-day, lagged and reciprocal effects during normal training. This study investigated the dynamic interplay between muscle damage and energetics in male boxers during a short training block. Thirteen amateur boxers were monitored over 16 consecutive days during early-season training. The participants were assessed each morning for plasma CK, urea, glucose, and creatinine (days 1 and 16 only) concentrations, before self-reporting muscle soreness (1-10 scale). Within-person contemporaneous (lag-0) and temporal (lag-1) networks were estimated using multilevel vector autoregression. Muscle soreness, CK, urea, and glucose presented different trajectories with training, but with some heterogeneity reflecting within-person variances (47% to 78%). The contemporaneous network yielded a significant positive edge (or correlation) between CK and soreness (r = 0.44), along with negative CK-glucose and glucose-urea edges. More significant edges emerged in the temporal network, with soreness linked to CK (r = 0.19), glucose (r = -0.28) and urea (r = 0.22), whilst the CK-glucose edge sign switched. In summary, daily fluctuations in muscle damage and energetic activity, which presented in a normal physiological range, were highly variable among boxers during early-season training. Within-person networks indicated some interrelatedness between CK, soreness, urea, and glucose, although the nature and presence of these relationships were contingent on temporal ordering. These inconsistences reflect the pleiotropy of energetic biomarkers in training and recovery.

Associations between the Big Five personality traits, testosterone, and cortisol in adolescent male athletes.

Testosterone (T) has been conceptualized as a biomarker of individual differences, yet T associations with the Big Five personality traits are inconsistent. Athletes provide a suitable model for evaluation here, as T co-expresses traits related to male-to-male competition and fitness with cortisol (C) playing a moderating role. This study investigated associations between the Big Five traits, T, and C in adolescent male athletes. One hundred and twenty male ice hockey players (aged 14-19 years) were assessed for blood total (T, C) and free (FT, FC) hormones, body-size dimensions (i.e., body mass, height, body mass index [BMI]), the Big Five personality traits (i.e., extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness), and trait anxiety. Correlational and regression (with age and BMI as covariates) analyses identified a positive effect of FT on extraversion, but a negative FT effect on neuroticism and anxiety (p < 0.05). Significant FT × FC interactions emerged for extraversion and agreeableness. Slope testing revealed that FT had a positive effect on extraversion at the FC mean and +1 SD, and a negative effect on agreeableness with FC at +1 SD. In conclusion, adolescent male athletes with a higher serum FT concentration tended to express higher extraversion, but lower neuroticism and anxiety. The FT association with extraversion was moderated by FC concentration, as was agreeableness. Therefore, high-FT athletes presented a behavioural disposition that favours dominance and resiliency, with some dependencies on FC availability. Since all association effect sizes were weak, replicate studies on larger adolescent samples are needed.

Day-to-day coordination of the stress and reproductive axes: A continuous-time analysis of within-person testosterone and cortisol relationships in athletic and healthy men.

Day-to-day coordination of the stress (i.e., hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal [HPA]) and reproductive (i.e., hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal [HPG]) axes is central to allostatic regulation, reproductive success, and survival. Reports of positive, within-person testosterone and cortisol relationships (or coupling) suggest cross-talk of a facilitative nature, but longitudinal evidence is scarce and has methodological and analytical limitations. To address this, we used a continuous-time (CT) model to investigate day-to-day, within-person coupling of testosterone and cortisol in two male cohorts. Salivary testosterone and cortisol fluctuations were monitored in 35 athletic men across two international tournaments (M = 19.3 tests) and in 41 healthy men during normal daily living (M = 27.9 tests). Bayesian CT analysis revealed a diminishing effect of each hormone on itself as time-interval length or lag increased. In both groups, cortisol had a negative lagged effect on testosterone that persisted for around three days. The cortisol effect on testosterone peaked after 0.71 and 0.51 days in athletic (standardized estimate = -0.13) and healthy men (standardized estimate = -0.11), respectively. Further estimates of non-lagged, contemporaneous correlations revealed positive testosterone and cortisol relationships (athlete r = 0.04, healthy r = 0.46). In summary, complex within-person HPA and HPG interplay emerged in two independent male cohorts. Specifically, a rising cortisol concentration was linked to a fall in testosterone concentration at later time points, but concurrently these hormones tended to rise and fall together. Our results suggest that inhibitory and facilitatory hormonal actions coexist on varying timescales, thereby expanding knowledge of HPG and HPA cross-talk in everyday life.

The digit ratio (2D:4D) and testosterone co-predict vertical jump performance in athletic boys: Evidence of organizational and activational effects of testosterone on physical fitness.

The digit ratio (2D:4D) is a negative correlate of boy's physical fitness, and thought to arise from organizational effects of prenatal testosterone on different bodily systems. During human ontogeny, activational effects of testosterone on body size and strength offers another pathway to physical fitness. We tested these hypotheses by examining the organizational and activational effects of testosterone on vertical jump performance in athletic boys. Using a cross-sectional design, 173 boys (aged 9 to 18 years) were tested for standing height, body mass, body fat, fat-free mass, weekly training activity, training history, salivary testosterone and cortisol, R2D:4D, L2D:4D, and right-left 2D:4D (Dr-1), and vertical height in 3 different countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. A generalized additive model was employed to delineate age-related trajectories and predict CMJ performance. Our models yielded significant non-linear increases (or changes) in body size, current hormone concentration, training outcomes, and CMJ performance with chronological age. All 2D:4D measures were age invariant. The R2D:4D and testosterone were significant non-linear predictors of CMJ height with (R2 = 66.2%) or without (R2 = 54.3%) covariates, whereby a higher current testosterone concentration (up to a certain level) and a lower or higher R2D:4D were linked to better performance. The L2D:4D and Dr-1 had no predictive value. In conclusion, the R2D:4D and testosterone were co-predictors of CMJ height among athletic boys, with non-linear performance effects that differed in timing, tempo, and direction. Our findings confirm that testosterone can regulate a simple measure of boy's physical fitness through both an activational and organizational pathway.

Impact of one HF-rTMS session over the DLPFC and motor cortex on acute hormone dynamics and emotional state in healthy adults: a sham-controlled pilot study.

Studies indicate that high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (HF-rTMS) can lower cortisol concentration or output, with some evidence suggesting a link to testosterone. Together, these stress and social hormones might help regulate the emotional response to HF-rTMS. This pilot study evaluated the effect of HF-rTMS on acute testosterone and cortisol dynamics and emotional state in eleven healthy adults. Using a sham-controlled, single-blind, crossover design, participants completed a HF-rTMS session targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and motor cortex on separate days. Stimulation (250 total pulses) was applied at 90% of the resting motor threshold. Salivary testosterone and cortisol, mood, motivation, anxiety, and heart rate (HR) were assessed before (T1) and 1 (T2), 15 (T3), and 30 min (T4) after each session. There were no significant session differences in testosterone and cortisol concentration, mood, motivation, and HR. Although DLPFC stimulation produced less anxiety (vs. motor cortex), and testosterone output was stable across both treatments (vs. sham-related decline in testosterone), neither differed from the sham. Within-person fluctuations in testosterone, mood, motivation, and/or anxiety were significantly related across the DLPFC and motor cortex trials only. In conclusion, a single sub-maximal session of HF-rTMS did not affect the hormonal, emotional, or physiological state of healthy adults, relative to a sham. However, the emergence of stimulation-specific testosterone and/or emotional linkages suggests that the repeated effects of HF-rTMS may also manifest at the individual level. This offers another pathway to explain the therapeutic efficacy of rTMS and a model to explore interindividual variability in health-related outcomes.

Contemporaneous and temporal interrelationships between menstrual fluctuations in sex hormones and DXA estimates of body composition in a premenopausal female: a case study.

The reliability of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to assess body composition is influenced by factors like hydration status. Hence, any factor affecting total body water (TBW) content, such as menstrual shifts in sex hormones, might influence DXA estimates of lean soft tissue (LST) and fat mass (FM). To address this possibility, interrelationships between menstrual fluctuations in sex hormones, LST and FM were examined in a premenopausal female. The participant was monitored over 40 consecutive days for LST, FM and TBW by bioelectrical impedance. Daily capillary blood samples were taken to track 17ß-estradiol, progesterone, and luteinizing hormone (LH). Using a graphical vector autoregression model, variable interrelationships were tested in a contemporaneous network (same measurement window) and temporal network (next measurement window). In the contemporaneous network, LST was related to TBW (r=0.42) and FM (r=-0.34). The temporal network uncovered directional effects of TBW (r=0.14), FM (r=-0.59) and LST (r=-0.50) on progesterone concentration. Hormonal interrelationships also emerged in the temporal network, whereby LH (r=0.24) and 17ß-estradiol (r=0.13) were related to progesterone, and each hormone was related (r=0.50-0.69) to itself. The menstrual profiling of a premenopausal female revealed interrelationships between body composition and water content, but sex hormone fluctuations did not correlate with TBW, FM and LST on the same day or following day in the hypothesized direction. The temporal between- and within-hormone linkages reflect those natural feedback loops that control hormone secretion.

Testosterone and Dihydrotestosterone Changes in Male and Female Athletes Relative to Training Status.

PURPOSE: To establish if training volume was associated with androgen baselines and androgen responsiveness to acute exercise. METHODS: During a "high-volume" training phase, 28 cyclists (14 men and 14 women) undertook oxygen-uptake and maximal-work-capacity testing. Two days later, they completed a repeat-sprint protocol, which was repeated 3 weeks later during a "low-volume" phase. Blood and saliva samples were collected before and after (+5 and +60 min) the repeat-sprint protocol. Blood was assayed for total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and saliva, for testosterone and DHT. RESULTS: Pretrial TT, FT, and DHT concentration was greater for males (P < .001, large effect size differences), and in both genders TT, DHT, and saliva for DHT was higher during high-volume loading (moderate to large effect size). Area-under-the-curve analysis revealed larger TT, FT, and DHT responses to the repeat-sprint protocol among females, and high-volume training was linked to larger TT, DHT, and saliva for DHT responses (moderate to large effect size). Baseline TT and FT correlated with oxygen uptake and work capacity in both genders (P < .05). CONCLUSION: DHT showed no acute performance correlation but was responsive to volume of training, particularly in females. This work informs on timelines and relationships of androgenic biomarkers in males and females across different training loads, adding to the complexity that should be considered in interpretation thereof. The authors speculate that testosterone may impact acute performance via behavioral mechanisms of motivation and attention; DHT, via training volume-induced androgenic promotion, may facilitate long-term adaptive changes, especially for females.

The impact of menstrual-cycle phase on basal and exercise-induced hormones, mood, anxiety and exercise performance in physically active women.

BACKGROUND: The influence of menstrual cycle phase on perceptual responses and exercise performance is still unclear in the literature. Therefore, this study investigated salivary estradiol (sal-E2) and cortisol (sal-C) concentrations, mood, anxiety and exercise (aerobic, anaerobic) performance in physically-active women across two menstrual-cycle phases. METHODS: Twelve women (mean age 24.9±4.3 years) were assessed in the early follicular (early-FP) and mid luteal (mid-LP) phase of their menstrual cycle. In each phase, participants were tested for both aerobic (i.e. VO2max) and anaerobic (i.e. peak power, average power and Fatigue Index) performance. Basal and exercise-induced changes in sal-E2 and sal-C concentrations, self-appraised mood and anxiety were assessed. RESULTS: We observed a significant increase in basal (pre-exercise) sal-E2 concentration from early-FP to mid-LP (P≤0.05), coupled with a significant increase in VO2max in early-FP (39.9±7.8 mL/kg/min) versus mid-LP (36.9±7.8 mL/kg/min). Depression also decreased with aerobic exercise, but only in the early-FP. No other significant menstrual-phase differences in exercise performance, emotional state or hormonal change scores were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that physically-active women may experience a natural rise in estradiol concentration, as they transition from the early-FP to mid-LP. In the present study, this was accompanied by a small reduction in VO2max. An exercise (aerobic)-related decline in depression also emerged in the early-FP. Most of the exercise performance, emotional state and hormonal measures did not exhibit any menstrual phase-related difference.

Menstrual variation in the acute testosterone and cortisol response to laboratory stressors correlate with baseline testosterone fluctuations at a within- and between-person level.

Studies have compared HPA and HPG stress reactivity across the follicular and luteal phases to assess the menstrual impact of estradiol and progesterone fluctuations. Ovulatory shifts in baseline and stressor-induced testosterone among athletic women offer a new framework to explore these responses. Here we investigated menstrual variation in baseline testosterone as a predictor of the acute testosterone and cortisol response to laboratory stressors in female athletes. Using a semi-randomized crossover design, thirty athletic women completed a physical (4 × 6-s bike sprints) and psychological (5 × 2-min cognitive tests with social evaluation) stressor on day seven (D7), 14 (D14), and 21 (D21) of a menstrual cycle. Baseline fluctuations and acute changes in salivary testosterone and cortisol were measured. The D14 testosterone response to both stressors (13.7%) exceeded D7 (7.3%) and D21 (7.0%), whereas cortisol was less responsive on D14 (9.8%) than D7 (13.0%) and D21 (12.0%); all moderate to large effect size differences (p < 0.01). Baseline testosterone, which presented large individual and menstrual variation with a D14 peak, was significantly related (moderate correlations) to testosterone and cortisol stress reactivity on a between-person level. Both outcomes were related (weak correlations) to within-person fluctuations in baseline testosterone, but these effects were mediated by testing day. In conclusion, menstrual variation in baseline testosterone concentration correlated with testosterone and cortisol reactivity to a physical and psychological stressor. Thus, gradients of stressor-induced hormonal change showed some dependency to endogenous testosterone, both individual differences and fluctuations over time, among naturally cycling athletic women.Lay summaryThe female menstrual cycle is accompanied by dramatic shifts in estradiol and progesterone concentration, but less is known about testosterone variability and its role in stress regulation. In this study, menstrual fluctuations in baseline testosterone concentration correlated with acute testosterone and cortisol reactivity to laboratory stressors.

A longitudinal investigation of bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment.

In sport, testosterone has been positioned as a substrate for motivation with both directional and time dependencies. However, evidence is scarce when considering the complexities of competitive sport and no work has explicitly modeled these dependencies. To address these gaps, we investigated the bidirectional and time-dependent interrelationships between testosterone and training motivation in an elite rugby environment. Thirty-six male athletes were monitored across training weeks before and after eight international rugby matches. Pre-breakfast measures of salivary testosterone and training motivation (1-10 rating) were taken on training, competition, and recovery days (up to 40 tests). Using a continuous-time (CT) model, within-person estimates of autoregressive effects (persistence) and cross-lagged effects (relationships) were derived. A stronger, more persistent temporal association was identified for testosterone than for motivation. Cross-lagged effects verified that training motivation was positively related to testosterone at latter time points (p < 0.001). Discrete-time analyses revealed a non-linear association; increasing in strength from a zero-time lag to peak after 2.83 days (standardized effect = 0.25), before dissipation over longer lagged intervals. The testosterone relationship with ensuing training motivation was also positive, but non-significant. Match effects also appeared (p < 0.001) with a predicted decline in training motivation, but a rise in testosterone, at match onset. In summary, a positive association emerged between within-person fluctuations in self-appraised motivation to train and testosterone concentration in an elite rugby environment. The lagged, non-linear nature of this relationship and match predictions on both outcomes support, and extend, theoretical models linking testosterone and competitive behaviors.

Performance indicators during international rugby union matches are influenced by a combination of physiological and contextual variables.

OBJECTIVES: Research has linked physiological (e.g., hormonal, affective, fatigue) outcomes to performance indicators in rugby competition, but no work has integrated and contextualised these factors within a test-match environment. We addressed this gap by monitoring 29 athletes from a training squad across eight international rugby matches. DESIGN: Longitudinal observational study. METHODS: Pre-match (8-9am) measures of salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations, sleep duration, pulse rate, muscle soreness, stress, mood, and motivation were taken. Contextual factors were playing time, internal training load (ITL), test-match experience, opponent ranking, and crowd size. Performance was indexed by coach and player ratings of performance (CRP, PRP) and quantitative metrics; offloads, turnovers, runs with ball in hand (RWB), tackles, passes, and defenders beaten (DFB). RESULTS: Morning cortisol, sleep and mood were positively related to CRP and PRP (standardised coefficient estimates from 0.17 to 0.22). Cortisol, sleep, stress, mood and motivation were associated with one (or more) of turnovers, RWB, tackles, passes and DFB (incidence rate ratio [IRR] from 0.74 to 1.40). Playing time was positively related to all quantitative performance indicators (IRR from 1.01 to 1.04) with ITL, opponent ranking, and crowd size predicting selected outputs (IRR from 0.89 to 1.15). The explanatory models varied (conditional R2=0.15-0.83) but were generally stronger with both physiological and contextual inputs. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple physiological and contextual factors appear to contribute to player performance in international rugby competition. Measurement of these factors may guide training and management practices, a potential practical consequence but also advancing understanding from marker to causal link.

Physiological and Performance Effects of Caffeine Gum Consumed During a Simulated Half-Time by Professional Academy Rugby Union Players.

Russell, M, Reynolds, NA, Crewther, BT, Cook, CJ, and Kilduff, L. Physiological and performance effects of caffeine gum consumed during a simulated half-time by professional academy rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 145-151, 2020-Despite the prevalence of caffeine (CAF) as an ergogenic aid, few studies have examined the use of caffeinated gums, especially during half-time in team sports. The physiological (blood lactate and salivary hormone concentrations) and performance (repeated sprints and cognitive function) effects of consuming CAF gum during a simulated half-time were examined. Professional academy rugby union players (n = 14) completed this double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced study. After pre-exercise measurements, players chewed a placebo (PLC) gum for 5 minutes before a standardized warm-up and completing repeated sprint testing (RSSA1). Thereafter, during a 15-minute simulated half-time period, players chewed either CAF (400 mg; 4.1 ± 0.5 mg·kg) or PLC gum for 5 minutes before completing a second repeated sprint test (RSSA2). Blood lactate, salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations, and indices of cognitive function (i.e., reaction time and Stroop test) were measured at baseline, pre-RSSA1, post-RSSA1, pre-RSSA2, and post-RSSA2. Sprint performance was not affected by CAF (p = 0.995) despite slower sprint times after the first sprint of both RSSA tests (all p < 0.002). After half-time, salivary testosterone increased by 70% (+97 ± 58 pg·ml) in CAF vs. PLC (p < 0.001), whereas salivary cortisol remained unchanged (p = 0.307). Cognitive performance was unaffected by time and trial (all p > 0.05). Although performance effects were absent, chewing CAF gum increased the salivary testosterone concentrations of professional rugby union players over a simulated half-time. Practitioners may, therefore, choose to recommend CAF gum between successive exercise bouts because of the increases in salivary testosterone observed; a variable associated with increased motivation and high-intensity exercise performance.

Medical students preferring a surgical or non-surgical elective differ in their emotional and hormonal responses to a psychological stressor.

This study examined a possible link between the elective preferences of medical students (surgical vs. non-surgical) and their emotional and hormonal responses to a psychological stressor. Forty medical students completed a laboratory stressor comprising of 10 puzzles in a time-limited format. Emotional state was assessed before (competitiveness, anxiety) and after (stress, enjoyment) testing, along with changes in salivary testosterone (ΔT) and cortisol (ΔC). Comparisons were made according to individual preferences for a surgical (n = 16) or non-surgical (n = 24) elective. Those seeking surgery had a lower 2D:4D (d = -2.0) with higher competitiveness scores (d = 2.7), but less anxiety (d = -0.9) and stress (d = -0.8). They also had a larger ΔT (17% vs. 6%) and smaller ΔC (7% vs. 12%) from the non-surgical cohort. Significant interrelationships were observed between 2D:4D, competitiveness, anxiety, stress and hormones. In summary, in students at a career stage of considering options in medicine, differences in stress responsivity were seen in those considering surgery, as compared to those considering other specialities.

Individual variation in the cortisol response to a simulated Olympic weightlifting competition is related to changes in future competitive performance.

The cortisol (C) and testosterone (T) responses to experimental stress have been linked to sport and health outcomes several days to years later. Here we examined the utility of these biomarkers, taken across a simulated Olympic weightlifting (OWL) competition, as predictors of future competitive performance in young athletes. Seventy junior athletes (46 males, 24 females) participated in a talent identification and development programme that replicated an OWL competition. Performance was indexed by the total load lifted, relative to body mass, with serum changes in C (∆C) and (∆T) concentrations profiled. We identified each athlete's best performance in real competitions over two subsequent years via online resources. Hierarchical regression was used to predict changes in competitive performance at <12 (∆Total12) and 12-24 months (∆Total24). The simulated OWL event promoted a small positive ∆C (effect size [ES]=0.3) and ∆T (ES=0.5), but with large variation in ∆C (-58% to 200%) and ∆T (-21% to 71%). Performance improved after 12 (ES=1.5) and 24 months (ES=0.9). The ∆C was negatively related to the ∆Total12 and ∆Total24 when controlling for competitions entered (R2=13-24%). Sensitivity analyses confirmed the ∆C link to both outcomes (R2=9%). The serum C and T responses to a simulated OWL competition varied considerably between participants. Their competitive performance improved over the next two years and individual performance trajectories were related to the ∆C. Therefore, individual variation in the C responses to a competitive stressor may help forecast the training and/or competitive gain process in young developing athletes.

Within- and between-person variation in morning testosterone is associated with economic risk-related decisions in athletic women across the menstrual cycle.

Literature suggests that women experience ovulatory shifts in risk-taking behaviours across different domains, which might be partly attributed to changes in testosterone (T). Thus, we investigated associations between menstrual variability in T concentrations and economic risk-related decisions among athletic women. Thirty-five women were monitored across three consecutive menstrual cycles. Testing occurred on day seven (D7), 14 (D14) and 21 (D21) following the onset of menses. The morning (7 to 8 am) assessment of salivary T (sal-T) and cortisol (sal-C) was followed by the economic Hawk-Dove game (11 am to 12 pm) played in pairs, where hawk decisions were used to index risk. Morning sal-T concentration increased from D7 to D14, before decreasing on D21 (p < 0.001), representing moderate effect size (ES) changes of 0.6 to 0.8. Morning sal-C did not vary over time. Hawk choices paralleled the sal-T results, being elevated on D14 (p < 0.001) with large ES changes of 1.8. Regression analyses revealed that morning sal-T concentration was positively related (p ≤ 0.01) to the number of hawks chosen between- (beta = 0.47) and within-participants (beta = 0.10) when controlling for training hours and menstrual day. In summary, the risk-related choices of athletic women during a dyadic contest covaried with morning sal-T concentrations across the menstrual cycle. Both outcomes were positively correlated on a within- and between-person level. Confirming the major sources of T variation across the menstrual cycle, whilst discerning its relationship with other risk-related behaviours, would be worthwhile avenues for research.

The digit ratio (2D:4D) relationship with testosterone is moderated by physical training: Evidence of prenatal organizational influences on activational patterns of adult testosterone in physically-active women.

BACKGROUND: The 2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D) is regarded as a sexually dimorphic trait governed by prenatal testosterone (T) and estradiol exposure. However, relationships between the 2D:4D and adult sex hormone concentrations are inconsistent in females. Environmental contingencies (e.g., physical training) may provide a stronger basis for establishing these linkages, particularly if the relationships are plastic and not fixed. AIMS: To investigate associations between 2D:4D, training hours and salivary T (sal-T) measures in physically-active women. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive and quasi-experimental monitoring across the follicular (day 7), ovulatory (day 14) and luteal (day 21) phases of three menstrual cycles. SUBJECTS: 35 naturally-cycling women training regularly for sport (range 3-12 h a week). OUTCOME MEASURES: Morning sal-T concentrations and changes in sal-T to a physical and psychological stimulus (~10 min) were measured. RESULTS: Both 2D:4D and training hours were related to morning sal-T concentrations in all three menstrual phases (p < 0.01) and their interaction was significant during ovulation. Follow-up testing revealed a negative 2D:4D and sal-T association in women reporting high, but not low, training hours each week. Participant 2D:4D was also related to sal-T changes under physical and/or psychological challenge across each menstrual phase (p < 0.01), whereas training hours and its interaction with 2D:4D were not significant predictors of these outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: 2D:4D linkages with basal and challenge-induced sal-T changes were identified in women undertaking regular physical training. Training hours also moderated the 2D:4D link to morning sal-T, but with some menstrual-phase dependency. These complexities and environmental relationships may help reconcile conflicting results.

The impact of a competitive learning environment on hormonal and emotional stress responses and skill acquisition and expression in a medical student domain.

The concept of competition has implications for educational contexts, as hormonal and emotional changes under competitive stress can modulate learning and memory processes. This study examined the impact of a competitive learning environment and associated hormonal and emotional responses on skill acquisition and expression in a medical domain. Using a cross-over design, sixteen male medical students participated in a competitive (in pairs facing each other) and non-competitive (alone) learning situation. In each treatment, an instructional video was followed by a timed straight-line suture evaluation with anxiety and competitiveness recorded. Salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) were assessed at rest, before and after evaluation to quantify changes in T (ΔT) and C (ΔC). These procedures were followed by two sessions of self-directed training before retesting. Paired learning produced a larger positive ΔT (5.9-7.8% vs. 2.0-5.3%) and ΔC (7.6% vs. 3.3%), which was accompanied by more anxiety and elevated competitiveness (p < .01). Anxiety declined and suturing abilities improved over time (p < .001), irrespective of the learning approach, with resting C concentrations decreasing when learning alone (p < .05). Some ΔT and ΔC measures correlated (r = 0.40 to 0.65) with anxiety and competitive desire with paired learning only, whereas the ΔC was linked to suturing performance (r = -0.35) when learning alone. In summary, a tacit competition in a natural learning situation promoted more pronounced hormonal and emotional responses. However, skill acquisition and its expression improved to a similar extent in both situations of competitive and non-competitive assessment. Different adaptive pathways for skill expression and development emerged from this work.

Serum cortisol as a moderator of the relationship between serum testosterone and Olympic weightlifting performance in real and simulated competitions.

Some equivocality exists regarding the effect of testosterone (T) on competitive performance with cortisol (C) implicated as a moderating factor. This study investigated whether C is moderating the T relationship with Olympic weightlifting (OWL) performance during real and simulated competitions. We monitored 105 male athletes (age 19.3±3.7 years); 46 during real OWL competitions (e.g., national age championships) and 59 across simulated events (e.g., talent identification). Serum T and C were assessed before warming up and within 15 minutes of event completion. Performance was indexed by the total combined load across the snatch and clean and jerk exercises. Hierarchical linear regression and simple slopes were employed to test the hormone and performance relationships. Pre-competition T (pre-T) and C (pre-C) were unrelated to OWL performance when controlling for competition type, time of day, age, and body mass (model=75.6% variance). However, the pre-T × pre-C interaction was significant (model=77% variance). Upon exploring this interaction, different pre-T and performance relationships emerged for males with high pre-C (ß=-9.96) and low pre-C levels (ß=9.04), with diverging slopes (p=0.006). The assessment of T changes and pre-C produced similar results. The association between male T and performance during OWL competition was determined by C activity, which could explain conflicting reports of T as a correlate of competitive abilities. Our results imply that T and C are not strictly anabolic and catabolic biomarkers of performance, respectively, but rather they exert complementary actions that could depend on task, situational and environmental needs.